How Successful was Kennedy's 'New Frontier'?

Question 1

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (Medicare)

Answer 1

Planned to inc. social security taxes by 0.25%, Medicare to help the poor+elderly. Prevent w.c falling back on public/private charity.
House Ways and Means Committee (Wilbur Mills, S.D) refused to give enough time to be discussed, 1963

Question 2

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (School Assistance Bill)

Answer 2

Feb 1961, submitted to Congress w/ other edu. proposals. $2.3 billion in 3 years to build new schools+raise teacher’s salaries.
Didn’t apply to private, inc. Catholic, schools, JFK first R.Catholic President, maintain credibility. Bishops opposed the bill, passed Congress, defeated in House of Representatives

Question 3

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (Department of Urban Affairs)

Answer 3

Created DUA to halt urban decline. Idea of department of Housing and Urban Affairs 1 of top 7 legislative priorities.
Proposals rejected by Congress repeatedly during 1961-62, S.D worried JFK pro-civil rights, would appoint diverse officials.

Question 4

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (Civil Rights Legislation)

Answer 4

1963, civil rights struggle increasingly intense+violent, (Birmingham, Alabama). JFK morally condemned the violence, introduced Bill to end Jim Crow laws.
Stuck in Congress in Nov.1963 (death), House Rules Committee (Chair: Howard W.Smith), wanted to stall bill indefinitely.

Question 5

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (Tax Reform)

Answer 5

JFK took office in 4th major recession since WW2, declining agri.exports+income, >5 million looking for work. L.taxes to boost economy+inc. spending.
August 1963, House Ways and Means Committee voted a tax bill out of committee.

Question 6

Policy Area 1- Major Legislative Initiatives (Analysis)

Answer 6

Coalition of S.D+Republicans opposed his policies
Congress opposed many policies
JFK could have utilised Johnson in negotiations with the South

Question 7

Policy Area 2- Environmentalism (Key Topic)

Answer 7

Growing concern about pollution+destruction of habitats
1962- Rachel Carson, Silent Spring- drew attention to impact of chemical insecticides eg DDT on food chain.

Question 7

Policy Area 2- Environmentalism (What Was Done)

Answer 7

JFK established advisory committee on pesticides
Jan 1961- Stewart Udall appointed as Secretary of the Interior, improved Park Service, expanded National Parks (Point Reyes, National Seashore, California), helped acquire 3.85 million acres, 6 national monuments, 50 wildlife refuges
1963- Clean Air Act, limited pollution from cars+factories

Question 8

Policy Area 2- Environmentalism (Analysis)

Answer 8

Legacy- national parks still protected by government
Legitimised environmental concerns of the public
American symbol of environmentalism- led the way

Question 9

Policy Area 3- Peace Corps (What Was It)

Answer 9

1st March 1961, executive order, Peace Corps formed. Volunteer force, sent Americans to developing countries to provide aid. 5000 volunteers+46 countries in the first 2 years.
Fixture of Republican+Democrat administrations.
Critics- ‘Yankee Imperialism’

Question 10

Policy Area 3- Peace Corps (Analysis)

Answer 10

Legacy- exists to this day, shows success
71% of Americans approved in an opinion poll
Improved US image in the Cold War
Helping ‘vulnerable’ countries- protected them from Communism.

Question 11

Policy Area 4- Space Programme (Why Was It A Concern)

Answer 11

USSR launched Sputnik- first satellite in 1957+launched Yuri Gagarin, first man into space, April 1961- ahead in the space race. Huge propaganda loss for US, had to reassert dominance

Question 12

Policy Area 4- Space Programme (How Did Kennedy Develop It)

Answer 12

25th May 1961, special message to Congress, asked for additional $7-9 billion over 5 years
US must ‘commit itself to the goal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon’
<1 year, Alan Sheppard+Virgil Grisson in space, 20th Feb 1962, John Glenn matches USSR orbit.

Question 13

Policy Area 4- Space Programme (Analysis)

Answer 13

Legacy- no other nation matched moon landing, further development of NASA
Stimulated research into computing, electronics, and aeronautical engineering
Propaganda win for USA

Question 14

Overall Analysis- Significance of Kennedy’s ‘legacy’ Legislation

Answer 14

Major legislative initiatives fell through, failed to implement key policies.
Vast expansion of National Parks, lasting impact on environmental preservation.
Peace Corps exist to this day.
Space Programme- 1969 moon landing, key milestone, not matched since.

Question 15

Policy Area 5- Civil Rights (1961)

Answer 15

1961- Freedom Riders, rode interstate buses, ignored segregation in Southern states Attorney General Robert Kennedy (brother) sent federal troops+enforced desegregation on interstate buses

Question 16

Policy Area 5- Civil Rights (1962)

Answer 16

1962- Acted in defence of James Meredith, black student in Uni of Mississippi. Ross Barnett, Gov. tried to stop him enrolling, Supreme Court backed Meredith, Barnett didn’t provide protection- mob of violent white protesters. Kennedy sent federal troops to protect Meredith.

Question 17

Policy Area 5- Civil Rights (1963)

Answer 17

1963- televised violence against black children in Birmingham, Alabama. Kennedy pledged to end segregation. Called meetings to persuade businessmen, educators, religious groups, lawyers, union leaders and Southern governors to support Civil Rights Bill, outlawing racial discrimination. Faced opposition, but was passed by Johnson in 1964

Question 18

Policy Area 5- Civil Rights (Lack of Support)

Answer 18

Albany campaigns (1961-2), failed to intervene, no visible violence but Laurie Pritchett, Chief of Police allowed officers to beat black civil rights protesters off camera.
JFK appeased pro-segregationists, appointed federal judges, inc. one who banned demonstrations, Albany.
Reluctant to encourage public campaigns, 1963, tried to dissuade March on Washington

Question 19

Policy Area 5- Civil Rights (Analysis)

Answer 19

Campaigns driven by civil rights activists who pressured the government, reactive policies, federal intervention after violence committed.
Introduced Civil Rights Bill to ensure legal rights cooperated with civil rights organisations for de jure change.
Unable to pass substantial legislation.

Question 20

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Minimum Wage)

Answer 20

May 1961- Kennedy able to increase minimum wage from $1 to $1.25 for some workers- 3.6 million. S.D led by Carl Vinson ensured groups were excluded, including 150,000 laundry workers. High proportion of black Americans in these groups.

Question 21

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Development and Training Act)

Answer 21

Development and Training Act of 1962, provided job training for the poorly educated. 40 states applied for funding, 12,600 trainees on 351 approved programmes. But had little impact on unemployment, mainly subsidised officials and private interests.

Question 22

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Food-Stamps)

Answer 22

Pilot food-stamp programme, fed 240,000 people at a cost of $22 million annually. Through Executive Orders, JFK increased school lunch+milk programmes. 700,000 children benefitted from free lunch and fresh milk.

Question 23

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Equal Pay Act)

Answer 23

Equal Pay Act, 1963 provided women with equal pay to men for the same job. Part of JFK’s Presidential Commission on the status of women. In next 2 years, 171,000 employees received total of $84 million in back-pay. Encouraged women to form networks, growth of feminist movement post-1964. Not all women benefitted.

Question 24

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity)

Answer 24

Created by Executive Order, allocated a proportion of jobs to black Americans in March 1961. VP, LJ put in charge, got majority of federal contractors to sign up for 'Plans for Progress program' By end of 1961, NYT said little change had been made to levels of black unemployment, twice as high as white unemployment.

Question 25

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Housing Act)

Answer 25

The Housing Act (1961), one of JFK's greatest successes. Congress allocated $4.8 billion to fund housing projects for the poor e.g. public housing, low-interest loans. Some argue success was due to inc. business opportunities for developers+construction industry, not support for poor. Most comprehensive housing+urban renewal program in American history.

Question 26

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legisaltion (Food and Agriculture Bill)

Answer 26

The Food and Agriculture Bill (1962), gave federal subsidies to farmers. Rural poverty persisted, wasn't renewed.

Question 27

Policy Area 6- Other Social Legislation (Analysis)

Answer 27

Federal intervention eased financial problems for farmers, poorer families+low paid workers. Many programmes were piecemeal in impact. Supported affirmative action to diversify workforce, but many measures limited short-term Kennedy active in advancing women's rights and championing women's economic independence.