How Knowledge can be Doubted and Established

Question 1

Skepticism

Answer 1

Broadly speaking this term applies to those who would argue that we know much less than we believe that we do

Thus we should be more ready to doubt our beliefs and preconceived notions

Given that many of our tools for establishing truth are flawed/imperfect, we ought to doubt their reliability and the reliability of our truth claims

Question 2

Skepticism Examples

Answer 2

Our senses can be deceived or can report inaccurate information – cause hallucinations, optical illusions

Our logic can be flawed or misused – we make mistakes, cognitive neurological issues that impair our logic and reason (intoxication, brain injuries)

Our memory can be flawed/inaccurate – eyewitness testimony is notoriously unreliable, with rare exceptions people have significant gaps in their memory that are beyond their control, there is evidence that memory can be manipulated and certain neurological conditions can impact memory

Question 3

Radical Skepticism

Answer 3

Radical skeptics take this doubt to its extreme conclusions and argue that, given our unreliable methods of establishing truth, it is equally valid to believe that everything is real or that everything is illusion

Question 4

Reliabilism

Answer 4

Reliabilism is a response to skepticism

It argues that belief can be considered knowledge if it is true and established by a reliable process

This doesn’t disprove skepticism so much as offering a pragmatic alternative

Question 5

Gilbert Poyle

Answer 5

The British philosopher Gilbert Poyle responded to skepticism by pointing out that it is impossible that everything is an illusion
If all of reality were an illusion then the illusion itself would simply be what is real, and thus, by definition, not an illusion at all

Question 6

2 Categories of Knowledge

Answer 6

There are 2 broad categories of knowledge that are differentiated based on how we arrived at the truth

A Priori and A Posteriori

Question 7

A Priori

Answer 7

From the Latin term meaning “from what comes before”
This refers to knowledge that doesn’t require external experience

Ex. I don’t need to observe a bachelor to know that they are a single man, By knowing the meaning of the word bachelor I already know these things about the person being described.

Question 8

A Posteriori

Answer 8

Refers to knowledge that can only be attained by external experience/the senses
Ex. My shoes are brown, it is cold outside etc…

Question 9

2 Types of Propositions

Answer 9

There are 2 types of propositions (statements or claims of truth) and they are differentiated based on how the truth claims are established/proven

Analytic Propositions
Synthetic Propositions

Question 10

Analytic Propositions

Answer 10

These propositions can be established as either true or false based on the meaning of the words being said
Ex. “All Bachelors are single”- if one knows the meanings of the words in the sentence they can establish that the definition being given is true.

If i said “All Bachelors are married” we could use the same process to establish it as being false

Essentially it is a discussion of concepts and meanings that establishes accurate relationships between the 2

Question 11

Synthetic Propositions

Answer 11

In order to establish the truth of these propositions one must use a combination of both the meaning of the words in the proposition AND some true fact about the way the external world is

Ex. “there are no elephants living in Churchill Meadows”
In order to establish the validity of this truth claim I would need to understand the meanings of “Elephants” and “Churchill Meadows” but I would also need to know about the external factors of whether or not any actual elephants happen to be living in Churchill Meadows at this time (which might not be the case)

Question 12

A Priori-Analytical Knowledge

Answer 12

is possible (ie. We can know conceptual things based on grasping the concepts)

Question 13

A Posteriori-Synthetic Knowledge

Answer 13

is possible (ie. We can know external truths based on knowledge drawn from experience)

Question 14

A Posteriori Analytic Knowledge

Answer 14

is impossible (ie. We can’t know conceptual things as a result of external experiences)

Question 15

A Priori-Synthetic Knowledge
What is it?

Answer 15

A Priori, which means that it is known through rationality and without the use of external experience

Synthetic, which means that it is stating facts about something true and real in the external world
In other words, the question is: can we know true things about the external world through reason alone (and without external observation)?

Question 16

Empiricism

Answer 16

argue that it is NOT possible to have A Priori-Synthetic Knowledge

In other words, they claim that it is impossible to know true things about the external world without experience

David Hume is a notable example of an Empiricist. At one point he was so successful in his arguments that he appeared to have settled the debate (that did not turn out to be the case however)

Question 17

Rationalism

Answer 17

argue that A Priori-Synthetic Knowledge is possible (ie. If it can happen even once, ever, they are correct)

Rene Descartes is a notable Rationalist. His Trademark Argument for the existence of God is one good example of Rationalism (as well as most of his Philosophy in general)

The use of math in Engineering can also make an argument in favour of Rationalism