How Can Patterns And Trends In Gender Inequality Be Explained

Question 1

Explain about the first wave of feminism

Answer 1

Emerged in the mid 1800s with the aim of reforming the social and legal inequalities affecting working and to achieve universal female suffrage (right to vote)

It was mainly led by middle class women known as suffragettes

They were also concerned about the poor educational opportunities available to girls and fought for better secondary education and access to higher education

They also wanted to open up entry to the professions for women and children to change the law that stated that once women were married, their wealth and income became their husbands property and if they got divorced, women were forced to give up contact with their children

Question 2

When and how did the first wave of feminism achieve its goals

Answer 2

By the early 1900s the first wave was seen to have achieved a number of its goals since the right to vote was granted to women in 1928.

Laws were also passed that gave women greater access to higher education and the education system was reformed to give girls more rights. Eg girls were allowed to take part in formal national exams

Women were granted greater access to some professions like medicine

Other achievements included the recognition of married women’s property rights and some improvement in divorce and child custody rights

Question 3

What was the drawback of the first wave of feminism

Answer 3

Feminist campaigning subsided in the aftermath of the successes although significant gender inequalities continued to exist and women were still socialised to be housewives and mothers rather than paid employees

These issues have rise to the second wave of feminism

Question 4

Explain about the second wave of feminism

Answer 4

It grew in the 60s and 70s and was linked to other campaigns for social change such as the civil rights movement, gay rights and anti war protests

The forces was summed up in their slogan ‘the personal is political’ which refers to the view that many of the personal problems that women experience are the result of the unequal way society is organised

This leads to women’s oppression in the private sphere of the home and to the public sphere of work and politics ect

Key issues centred on achieving anti discrimination policies and equal rights

Question 5

What did the second wave of feminism do to get change

Answer 5

They aimed to raise women’s consciousness about the problems they faced through female only meeting and groups that would provide support networks

These groups provided a sense of ‘sisterhood’ whereby women felt responsible for each other and worked collectively to bring about social change

In the uk a significant event in the second wave was the first national women’s liberation movement conference held in 1970 which brought together many groups

Question 6

What was the outcome of the first national women’s liberation movement conference in 1979

Answer 6

Four demands were established:

• Equal pay for equal work
• Equal education and job opportunities
• Free contraception and abortion on demand
• Free 24 hour nurseries

In 1978 further demands were added:

• Legal and financial independence for all women
• An end to discrimination against lesbians
• Freedom for all women from intimidation by the threat or use of violence or sexual coercion regardless of marital status
• An end to all laws, assumptions and institutions that perpetuate male dominance

Question 7

What else emerged in the 1970s

Answer 7

Different strands of feminism, each with their own views on the causes of female inequalities and how the demands would be achieved

The main strands were liberal, radical and Marxist feminism

Question 8

How successful was the second wave of feminism

Answer 8

They achieved some success but most demands weren’t met and the divisions between the groups led to a fragmented movement and they seemed to lose unity and momentum

Question 9

Explain about the third wave of feminism

Answer 9

Developed from the mid 1990s onwards and is argued by some to be the current wave of feminism

It’s seen as a much more diverse and individualistic form of feminism which came into existence in the context of globalisation and an increasingly digital information society

It focuses less on laws and political processes and more on individual identity

It acknowledges that women come from many ethnicities, nationalities, religions and cultural backgrounds so there can be no single approach to feminism

They argue they want women to define feminism for themselves in a way that reflects their own identities and belief systems

It criticised second wave feminism for expressing the interests of mainly white middle class women

They do not have distinct goals, they focus on making changes to traditional ideas about sexuality and abolishing gender roles and stereotypes

Question 10

Explain the fourth wave of feminism

Answer 10

A contested concept with some theorists arguing it’s not distinct from previous waves

Fourth wave feminists claim that it is a movement that is necessary in the 21st century to take action against sexism and a range of inequalities facing girls and women across the globe

According to Kira Cochrane (2013) ‘it’s defined by technology: tools that are allowing women to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online’

They claim they use the internet to bring about change wherever they see the need by means of online petitions and direct action

Question 11

What to fourth wave feminists point to to support their claim that they are a powerful force in challenging sexism

Answer 11

The success of the everyday sexism project which began as a social media campaign in 2012 with the aim of documenting experiences of sexism

The introduction of an activism badge for girl guides under the heading ‘go for it! Be the change’

The growing influence of online organisations such as mumsnet

Uk feminista’s campaign against supermarkets displaying lads mags

Question 12

Explain about liberal feminists

Answer 12

Focused on obtaining equal opportunities and equal rights for males and females in society in areas such as the workplace, education and politics

They argue gender inequalities are the result of gender role socialisation and unfair laws and practices that reinforce discrimination between men and women

They believe a change in the norms and values that reinforce gender divisions will bring about equality and they regard legislation as a way of achieving this

They would point to the Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act as evidence of the success of liberal feminist campaigning

Question 13

What did Oakley (1974) argue

Answer 13

That gender role socialisation in the family is an important area where gender inequality takes root from a young age

She believes this occurs through processes like canalisation, verbal appellations, domestic activities and manipulation which teach children expected norms and values for their sex

Question 14

What did Oakley (1974) mean by manipulation

Answer 14

Refers to the encouragement of behaviour that is seen as gender appropriate eg girls being dressed in a feminine way

Question 15

What did Oakley (1974) mean by canalisation

Answer 15

Relates to the ‘channeling’ of children towards toys and activities seen as appropriate for their gender

This promotes different activities between boys and girls that will teach of reinforce accepted gender behaviour

Children learn their gender identity through internalising behaviour experiences in the family eg imitation of parents, parents discouraging gender inappropriate behaviour like crying in boys

Question 16

Evaluate Oakley (1974) work

Answer 16

+ It’s been praised for its endurance in still being able to provide explanations for gender differences that continue to be evident in society

• postmodernist ideas suggest that gender identities are no longer fixed and that there are a range of masculinity’s and femininities to choose from, therefore there’s not longer a clear set of gender norms for children to be socialised into. This means Oakleys views are out of date and lack temporal validity
• Oakley seems to regard children as passive recipients of gender role socialisation. It had been argued that at least there is a process of negotiation between parents and children. Theorists like Connell go further and contend that there is resistance to gender role socialisation as some children actively go against traditional gender stereotypes

Question 17

What have liberal feminists achieved

Answer 17

Their work has produced massive social change since the 1960s for women. Eg Somerville points out that women today enjoy more choice than their mothers and grandmothers about whether to marry, cohabit or live alone, whether to have children or not, what career they may choose

It’s also partly responsible for the massive or seismic cultural change in women’s attitudes which Wilkinson calls a genderquake. She argues that women today have a radically different attitude towards family responsibilities, education and men compared to their mothers and grandmothers.

Question 18

Evaluate liberal feminism

Answer 18

• radical and Marxist feminists would argue that liberal feminists fail to explain how males and females come to hold different levels of power in the family and more widely in society. Radical feminists would explain this by referring to the patriarchy and Marxist feminists would refer to capitalism
• some other forms of feminism take issue with liberal feminisms focus on reforming existing structures in society and argue that more revolutionary change is needed to bring about equality
• it has been argued that liberal feminists are overly optimistic and positive about their achievements. Eg despite the equal pay act of 1970 there has continued to be a gender pay gap
• critics argue that liberal feminism is a middle class movement that represents the interests of educated, professional women but fails to address the concerns of a wider range of women such as those from minority ethnic groups or the working class

Question 19

Explain what sharpe (1970s, 1990s) found which supports the liberal feminists view towards education and family life

Answer 19

She interviewed young women in the early 1970s in four schools in london.

She found that two thirds of the girls aspired to leave school at 16 and most regarded academic work as un feminine. Their occupational ambitions generally were limited to office or shop work and many expected to marry in their early 20s and looked forward to starting a family

In the 1990s sharpe carried out a second set of interviews with teenage girls in the same schools and found they saw school, university and qualifications as more important than marriage and family life. Most aspired to a high flying career and to have economic independence from men

This supports the liberal feminist view that there’s been a massive cultural change in the attitudes of women towards education and family life

Question 20

What do Marxists feminists believe social class affects

Answer 20

Believe social class affects the life chances of women and is a key factor in the relationship between men and women.

Question 21

Who are Marxist feminists influenced by

Answer 21

Influenced by Marxist theory but believe that it’s necessary to combine these views with a feminist approach to highlight the way in which capitalism is an economic system that leads to the oppression of women.

Question 22

What do Marxists feminists argue

Answer 22

That the family is a patriarchal institution and that women’s position in the family, as wives and mothers, results in them being exploited by capitalism

Gender inequalities in society are maintained because women are encouraged to accept the dominant ideology that the nuclear family is a natural family form and that any inequalities and differences between men and women in society are fair and legitimate because capitalism is presented as a meritocratic system

Question 23

Marxist feminists argue that women play a central role in the family through their domestic labour and in doing so, serve the need s of capitalism in which ways?

Answer 23

• they reproduce the next generation of workers and socialise them into norms and values that benefit capitalism by encouraging the children to be obedient and hardworking. Feely 1972 argues that the family teaches children to submit to a form of parental authority that is patriarchal. The family socialised its members into accepting traditional gender roles
• women’s domestic work is unpaid which benefits capitalism because only one wage has to be paid and the wife is then dependent on her husbands wage. Benston 1972 argues that a wife keeps her husband is good running order by feeding and caring for him and that this is essential to the running of capitalism. In addition a man must provide for his wife and children.
• women soothe the stresses and frustration of proletariat men after a hard day at work. Ansley 1976 sees women as acting as a safety valve as husbands return home and take their frustrations out on their wives
• because of women’s unpaid domestic labour, they’re available to work outside the home as a reserve army of labour for capitalism. Bruegel 1979 argues that the family is central to women’s oppression and points to the way that the ruling class use women to join the workforce when needed and send them back when not required

Question 24

What does Marxist feminist feely say about gender inequalities and what date

Answer 24

1972

Argues that the family teaches children to submit to a form of parental authority that is patriarchal. She claims that they emerge from family life preconditioned to accept their place in the capitalist hierarchy of power and control

She believes that the family is designed to teach passivity not rebellion

Question 25

What does Marxist feminist benston say about gender inequalities and what date

Answer 25

1972

Argues that a wife keeps her husband in good running order by feeding and caring for him and that this is essential to the smooth running of capitalism

In addition the fact that a man must provide for his wife and children means that he is less likely to challenge the capitalist system

Benston believes that the unpaid domestic labour of women helps to support the capitalist system.

She contends that if women were paid a wage for their work, there would have to be a massive redistribution of wealth

Benston is highly critical of the nuclear family and women’s role within in and sees it as a stabilising force in capitalist society

Question 26

What does Marxist feminist ansley say about gender inequalities and what date

Answer 26

1976

Sees women as acting as a safety valve and talks of women as being ‘the takers of shit’ as husbands return home having been exploited at work and take their frustrations and anger out on their wives

She contends that, ‘when wives play their traditional role as takers of shit, they often absorb their husbands’ legitimate anger and frustration at their own powerlessness and oppression

With every worker provided with a sponge to soak up his possibly revolutionary ire, the bosses rest more secure

Ansley therefore demonstrates the important role that women play in maintaining capitalism

Question 27

What does Marxist feminist Bruegel say about gender inequalities and what date

Answer 27

1979

Argues that the family is central to women’s oppression and points to the way that the ruling class use women to join the workforce when needed and send them back to the role of full time housewife when not required.

Question 28

What did dalla Costa and james do

Answer 28

1972

They published The Power of Women and the Subversion of the Community.
It launched the domestic labour debate by drawing attention to how the unpaid housework and other caring work women do contributes to the economy

A debate followed about whether full time caring was work or a role and whether it should be compensated with a wage

In the same year james founded the International Wages for Housework Campaign with a core demand of money paid from the State for unwaged work in the home and in the community.

As well as highlighting the need for wages for domestic work, the campaign also drew attention to the way that capitalist economies rely on the exploitation of women and how this increases their profits

Question 29

What did James go on to do after founding the International Wages for Housework Campaign

Answer 29

They continued the campaign and from 1985 she coordinated the International Women Count Network which was successful in securing the decision from the United Nations that governments should measure and values unwaged work in their national statistics.

Question 30

Evaluate Marxist feminism

Answer 30

• they tend to be criticised for placing too much emphasis on social class and not paying enough attention to other factors that may impact on women’s lives such as ethnicity or age
• postmodernist thinkers are also critical of the focus on class as they believe that it is no longer a significant social division
• radical feminists are critical of the emphasis on capitalist exploitation. They argue that patriarchy is a more significant form of exploitation that predates capitalism and has existed in all societies not just capitalist ones
• some theorists have questioned the usefulness of Marxist feminism as it relies on a revolution to bring about change and that does not seem to be happening
• hakim 2006 preference theory - argues women have preferences and make rational choices in terms of the type of work they do. Some prefer to be housewives and mothers

Question 31

Explain about hakim

Answer 31

Hakim (2006)

Preference theory

Argues women are not the victims of unfair employment practices but that they have preferences and make rational choices in terms of the type of work they do

She argues a lack of affordable and available childcare is not a major barrier to women getting jobs because mothers prioritise child rearing over employment.

In other words, women are not as committed to their careers as men and inequalities in the workplace are the result of the different behaviour and attitudes of men and women

She argues pretence theory is the only theory that can explain patterns and trends such as the glass ceiling, the continuing pay gap and occupational segregation (vertical and horizontal)

Question 32

What three classifications of women’s work lifestyle preferences in the 21st century does hakim 2006 propose

Answer 32

Home centred- family life and children are the main priority for this group and they prefer not to work. 20% of women in Britain

Adaptive- includes women who want to combine work and family, plus designers with unplanned careers who want to work but aren’t totally committed to their career. 60% of women in Britain.

Work centred- childless women. Their main priority is employment or equivalent activities in the public arena: politics, sport, art and so on. 20% of women in Britain.

Question 33

What does Hakim’a (2006) preference theory suggest about men

Answer 33

The majority of men are work centred compared to only a minority of women

It suggests that men will retain a dominant position in the labour market, politics and so on because only a minority of women are prepared to prioritise their jobs in the way that men do

Preference theory supports the functionalist human capital theory as it suggests that women are not as committed as men to paid work

Question 34

Evaluate hakim

Answer 34

• hakim has been heavily criticised by a number of other feminists eg Ginn et al (1996) point out that it is often employers attitudes rather than women’s attitudes that confine women to the secondary labour market of low paid, part time and insecure work
• many feminists criticise hakim for ignoring the power of patriarchy to subordinate and oppress women. It is argued that patriarchal ideology has a powerful effect on shaping women’s preferences

Question 35

What does Ginn et al say about Hakim

Answer 35

Ginn et al (1996) point out that it is often employers attitudes rather than women’s attitudes that confine women to the secondary labour market of low paid, part time and insecure work

Question 36

What do radical feminists believe is the main source of oppression for women

Answer 36

Patriarchy because society is run by men and in the interests of men

As a result men are advantaged in every area of society and have no interest in giving up any power or control to women

Question 37

What do radical feminists believe gender inequality is the outcome of

Answer 37

The outcome of the collective efforts of men to dominate, control and exploit women

Question 38

What do radical feminists believe can offer the possibility of female liberation

Answer 38

Revolutionary change

Question 39

What do radical feminists see as central to the oppression of women

Answer 39

The family because there’s always been a gender division of labour that had served to reinforce male domination as it is men who define ideas about women’s natural roles through establishing a patriarchal ideology

Some radical feminists also believe there’s a biological element to women’s oppression because it’s women who carry, give birth to and feed a child and this has contributed to their position in society

However they don’t not accept that biological differences should mean that women are treated unequally

Question 40

What does millett say and what date

Answer 40

Radical feminist millett (1970) argues that men originally acquired power over women because of biological factors but she suggests modern technology has provided developments such as the contraceptive pill and modern machinery that have meant men can no longer legitimate their power and domination

Question 41

What do radical feminists believe all men are prepared to do

Answer 41

To defend their power at all costs and use violence against women to control them and maintain their domination

Question 42

What does johnson say and what date

Answer 42

Radical feminist Johnson (1995) concept of patriarchal terrorism can be used to explain violence that is the result of ‘patriarchal traditions of men’s right to control their women’.

It’s a form of terrorisitc control of wives by their husbands that involves the systematic use of not only violence but also economic subordination, threats, isolation and other control tactics

Question 43

Radical feminists point to the level of domestic violence across the world as evidence of what

Answer 43

Evidence of the broad nature of patriarchal aggression

The issue has been widely recognised and the world health organisation reported in 2013 that the incidence of women who had experienced physical or sexual abuse from an intimate partner in their lifetime was 30% globally and 25.4% in Europe

Question 44

What do racial feminists believe men use patriarchal ideology to do

Answer 44

To enforce compulsory heterosexuality as a way of maintaining their control

Question 45

What do some radical feminists advocate

Answer 45

Separatism in the form of political lesbianism as choice that women can make to liberate themselves from men and avoid sleeping with the enemy

Question 46

What did To-Grace Atkinson state

Answer 46

During the second wave of feminism, radical feminist theorist Ti- Grace Atkinson stated that ‘feminism is the theory; lesbianism is the practice’

This has been a controversial idea among feminists and led to divisions within the movement

Question 47

What kind of family do radical feminists believe ensures make dominance

Answer 47

The traditional nuclear family is viewed as a means to ensure make dominance through female subordination to men in their unpaid domestic labour as housewives and mothers, forcing them to be dependent upon me.

Question 48

What view do Delphy and Leonard propose in their study familiar exploitation

Answer 48

Comjng from a radical feminist perspective, delphy and Leonard (1992) propose the view that the family is an institution that plays a major part in the oppression of women.

They see the family as an economic system in which men benefit from and exploit the work of women.

The key to this exploitation is that women work for the male head of the household and in this relationship he holds economic power.

Question 49

In looking at the family as an economic unit, what characteristics do they identify

Answer 49

In looking at the family as an economic unit, they identify a number of characteristics:

• Family based households have a social structure that involved two types of roles: head of household and their dependents
• the male head of household makes the decisions about the allocation of roles and tasks and even where there is negotiation, he has the final say
• members of the household work without pay for the head and wives carry out sexual and reproductive work. Domestic work is the responsibility of females
• the economic relationships in the family do not usually involve formal contracts or bargaining but mainly use informal methods of negotiation. For eg ‘wives and children have to study their husbands and fathers and handle them carefully to keep them sweet’
• dependents often receive payment in kind from the head in the form of clothing and so on rather than money
• when dependents, particularly wives, have paid employment outside the home, the still have to carry out household tasks or pay someone else out of their wages

Question 50

Evaluate radical feminism

Answer 50

• they tend to talk about the family without acknowledging variations in family life between social classes and different ethnic groups
• they see women as sharing common interests but it’s been argued that social class and ethnicity are important sources of inequality and differences between women
• liberal feminists would argue that the position of women in society has changed over time and that this is ignored by radical feminists
• radical feminists have been accused of over emphasising the factors that separate women from men. It’s argued that men and women work cooperatively together in a range of ways

Question 51

What does Sylvia Walby argue

Answer 51

Intersectionality: Sylvia walby 1990

She offers ideas that combine aspects of both Marxist and radical feminism

In the 80s walby wrote about the effect on women of the combined systems of patriarchy and capitalism

Later she developed the concept of the triple systems of oppression ( patriarchy, capitalism and racism)

More recently walby has developed her ideas further to embrace the concept of intersectionality which recognised the complex interplay between different forms of social inequality including class, gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality ect

Question 52

In theorising patriarchy (1990) walby produced a detailed analysis of the concept of patriarchy which moves beyond other feminist views. What does she say in it

Answer 52

She is critical of radical feminism for seeing patriarchy as universal and unchanging.

She is also concerned that the radical feminist approach ignores the impact of class and ethnicity on gender

Walby believes Marxist feminism is problematic because it focuses too much on capitalism and fails to explain women’s exploitation in non capitalist societies

Walby is critical of liberal feminism because it doesn’t consider the way that the structure of society affects gender relations

Question 53

Why does Walby 1990 see the concept of patriarchy as important

Answer 53

She sees it important in providing an understanding of gender inequality

She believes that patriarchy is not fixed and changes over time

She argues that is has evolved from private patriarchy where women were limited to the domestic sphere of home and family to public patriarchy in which women have entered the public sphere of employment, politics and so on but continue to suffer disadvantage

Question 54

According to Walby, women still suffer disadvantage despite entering the public sphere of employment, politics ect. Why does she think this happens

Answer 54

This disadvantage happens through six patriarchal structures in society, which restrict women and maintain male domination

1 paid employment- the patriarchal ideology that a woman’s place is in the home means that women face discrimination from employers and restricted access into careers. When women work they experience horizontal and vertical segregation with low pay and low status

2 the household- women are explored in the family and take primary responsibility for housework and childcare even if they’re working in full time paid employment

3 the stage- the acts in the interests of men rather than women in terms of taxation, welfare rules, the weakness of laws protecting women and so on

4 cultural institutions such as the media- these represent women in a narrow set of social roles such as sex objects or mothers and housewives. This reinforces patriarchal ideology

5 sexuality- a double standard is applied to men and women. Men are applauded for having many sexual partners whereas women are condemned for the same behaviour

6 violence against women- violence, the threat of violence and sexual assault are used by men to control women

Question 55

What did walby argue in her study Gender Transformations 1997

Answer 55

She argues that although there have been numerous social changes affecting gender relations, patriarchy continues to exist in new forms in Britain

Walby believes that young women have made important gains compared to older women

Older women may still experience private patriarchy whereas younger women tend to have better educational qualifications and are less likely to accept gender discrimination at work. They also have greater sexual freedom and are more likely to be involved in environmental and social movements, giving them more involvement in political processes.

Question 56

Evaluate Walby

Answer 56

+ a strength is that it can be viewed as an improvement on other feminist theory as it incorporates aspects of different feminisms

+ walby has developed and refined her ideas over time and incorporated social changes into her analysis

• Stacey has criticised walby for over emphasising the influence of social structure on behaviour. Instead she argues women negotiate such systems and are more active than walby assumes

Question 57

What’s functionalism

Answer 57

A perspective based on the view thag society is made up of independent parts, each of which contributes to the functioning of society as a whole. (Organic analogy)

Question 58

What do functionalists argue about gender inequalities

Answer 58

They argue that men and women have separate social roles that are based on biological differences and that these different role contribute to the smooth running of society

They suggest that since women give birth and nurse a child, it’s natural that they’ll take care of it. This leads to a division of labour between men and women in which women are more involved in domestic activities such as preparing meals and maintaining a home

Men therefore act as breadwinners and other economically dominant roles

Question 59

What did functionalist Murdock find and what date

Answer 59

Functionalist Murdock 1949 studied gender roles in over 200 societies and found that women were located in the home because of their biological function of bearing children and because their physique meant they were less able to pe from strenuous tasks

He concluded that this gender division in labour was evident in all the societies and therefore universal because they were functional

Question 60

What did functionalists parsons and bakes referred to men as having and what date

Answer 60

Functionalists parsons and bakes 1955 referred to men as having the instrumental, practical role while women have the expressive caring role.

These separate roles are seen as contributing to the smooth running of society but they also explain why men and women have different experiences in the labour market and elsewhere in the public sphere

Question 61

What have functionalists said about human capital theory

Answer 61

That human capital theory contends that the wage gap and other employment differences can be explained by the amount of human capital an individual or group of workers develop through the knowledge and skills they’ve obtained, often through education and training

It’s argued that personal incomes vary according to the amount of investment made in developing human capital

Question 62

What did functionalist Rastogi see human capital as and what date

Answer 62

Functionalist Rastogi 2002 sees human capital as knowledge, competency, attitude and behaviour embedded in an individual

Question 63

What has the human capital theory been used to support

Answer 63

To support functionalist views on meritocracy with the argument that men and women serve different roles and functions in society and are rewarded in different ways

Men are work orientated and committed to their jobs whereas women choose to prioritise their roles as homemakers and caring for family over their careers

As a result, gender inequalities in the workplace arise and are a legitimate outcome as women develop lower levels of human capital than men

Question 64

Evaluate functionalism

Answer 64

• feminists like Oakley have shows that gender roles are socially constructed rather than based on biological differences
• human capital theory ignores the structural constraints in society that may disadvantage women
• the func perspective is criticised because it has not kept pace with social changes in gender roles
• func tends to refer to the experience of white middle class people and neglects other social groups
• hakim thinks women choose their roles

Question 65

What is the new rifht

Answer 65

New right theory developed from the 1970s as a political and social movement that sought to influence government policies and public attitudes.

It continues to exert power in the British Conservative party and through the journalism of newspapers such as the daily Mail

New right thinkers are often regarded as nei functionalists as they hold a number of similar views to functionalists

Question 66

What do the new right argue about gender inequality

Answer 66

They believes that gender roles are biologically determined and that men and women should play different roles in society and much of their discussion centres on women’s roles in the family

Men should take the roles in the public sphere of work and politics ect and women should be located within the private domestic sphere

Question 67

What do the new right and nep functionalists argues about the nuclear family

Answer 67

They argue that the conventional nuclear family and the general division of roles within in are desirable and based on human nature

Both functionalists and new right believe that the conventional nuclear family is essential to having a stable, ordered society and any move away from it coukd lead to social breakdown and disorder

Question 68

What do new right believe about traditional gender roles

Answer 68

That theyre important for the well-being of individuals and society

The male breadwinner provides for the economic needs of the family and this means that they will not need support from the stage.

Having a female housewife means that the male breadwinner is supported and children will not suffer from maternal deprivation which could lead to problems in later life for them and for society.

Question 69

What is the main difference between functionalist and new right theorists

Answer 69

The era In which they were writing

The most prominent period for functionalism was the early to mid 20th century, when the nuclear family was seen to be widespread whereas the new right approach dates from the more recent period when the nuclear family was seen as under threat

Question 70

What’s the focus for the new right

Answer 70

Achieving a return to tradition family values and the traditional gender roles that accompany this

They are particularly concerned that changes in gender roles have led to social problems such as an increase in line parent families headed by women who do not socialise their children appropriately

Question 71

What do new right thinkers argue the fundamental differences between men and women mean

Answer 71

Mean that men should be the decision makers and women should take a subordinate role in supporting men

The new right therefore believe that men and women will not have the same experience in the public sphere and that’s why there are gender inequalities, though the new right would describe these as natural differences

Question 72

Why is new right campaigner Schlafly’s response to feminism and what date

Answer 72

New right campaigner Schlafly 1970 proposes an alternative approach to gender relations that reflects new right views

She acknowledges that marriage can be difficult but sees it as the most fulfilling role for women and states that marriage and motherhood have their trials and tribulations but what lifestyle doesn’t

Question 73

What’s schlaflys view on the Feminist stance on women’s roles (1977)

Answer 73

That a woman cannot defeat a man in a boxing match but she can motivate him and reward him

Question 74

What’s schlaflys view on the feminist stance on marriage (2003)

Answer 74

That marriage gives a woman a new identify and the opportunity for all round fulfilment as a woman

Question 75

What’s schlaflys view on the feminist stance on motherhood (2003)

Answer 75

That no measure of career success can compare with the thrill, satisfaction and fun of having babies

Question 76

What’s schlaflys view on the feminist stance on family (2003)

Answer 76

That society simply hasn’t invested a better wag of raising children that the traditional family

Question 77

What’s schlaflys view on the feminist stance on employment (1977)

Answer 77

That after 20 years a mother can see the results of her handiwork in the good citizen she has produced but after 20 years in the business world you’re lucky if you have a good watch to show

Question 78

What’s schlaflys view on the feminist stance on women and the military (2003)

Answer 78

That women have more important things to do such as taking care of babies

Question 79

What’s schlaflys view on the Feminist stance on gender neutrality (2003)

Answer 79

That forcing children to use annoying pronounces confuses youth

Question 80

Evaluate schlafly

Answer 80

• the biological argument for gender segregated roles hasn’t been proven
• new right thinkers tend to ignore the negative effects of the gender roles that they propose such as the dark side of the family
• the new right approach can be seen to be dated as it ignores the increasing numbers of people who choose to a adopt non traditional gender roles and report these as positive experiences
• the new right is accused of looking to the past for a golden age that never really existed as lone parenting, cohabitation and extra marital affairs existed then too

Question 81

What did Marxist Engels say about gender inequality

Answer 81

Engels is credited with putting forward the early Marxist view on women’s position in society.

He suggested that women’s subordinate position is a result of the ownership of private property and the development of the nuclear family that went with it

He argues that the rise of a class based society through capitalism brought with it rising inequality

The exploiter- exploited relationship that occurs between the bourgeoisie and proletariat is translated into the household in relationships between men and women

Engles argued that under capitalism men gained control over women as they wanted to pass on private property in the form of inheritance from one generation to the next and they wanted to be sure that the heirs were the legitimate offspring

This gave rise to the ideology of the nuclear family which sought to restrict women’s sexuality and enforce monogamy to protect male property rights

Question 82

How to Marxists share an interest with Marxists feminists in the role of women in supporting capitalism

Answer 82

Through their inlaid domestic labour and their position in the world of work as a reserve army of labour

Question 83

What do neo Marxists argue

Answer 83

They argue that social structure is based on the dominance of some groups over others and that groups in society share common interests whether their members are aware of it or not.

Conflict is not simply based on class struggle and the tensions between owner and worker or employer and employee; it occurs on a much wider level and amongst all other groups

These include parents and children, husbands and wives, young and old, sick and healthy, different ethnicities, sexualities and sexes

Question 84

From the 1960s onwards what have neo Marxists sought to support

Answer 84

Sought to support all oppressed groups in their struggle for equality, including women

Question 85

Evaluate marxism

Answer 85

• they’ve been criticised for over emphasising the impact of class and economic factors on gender. Radical feminists argue that the oppression of women by men was the first form of oppression
• They’ve been criticised for focusing on macro, structural issues and neglecting the small scale interactions that provide a more valid understanding of relationships between men and women
• Marxists have been accused of creating a conspiracy theory that suggests the bourgeoisie work together to create and enforce dominant ideas such as the ideology of the nuclear family but there’s little evidence to support this
• postmodernists would argue that Marxist views are outdated and fail to recognise the changes to gender roles that have happened over the last 50 years or so

Question 86

What three dimensions of stratification did Weber identify

Answer 86

Class, status and party

Question 87

What do weberians say about status in gender inequalities

Answer 87

That it’s helpful to look at concepts related to occupational segregation as they offer some explanation for the inequalities that women face both across and within the labour market

Horizontal segregation refers to differences in the number of males and females present across occupations eg, nurses and architects

This has led to individuals typically choosing occupations where they see their own gender represented

Vertical segregation describes men’s domination of the highest ranking jobs. The concepts of the glass ceiling, concrete ceiling and glass elevator are relevant here

Question 88

What did the Equal Opportunities Commission (2994) identify

Answer 88

Identified key explainations ons for the continued presence of horizontal occupational segregation ;

• Individual differences, including human capital theory
• individuals career choices based on their perceptions about different careers, also affected by parental influence and the influence of teachers and careers advisors
• discrimination by employers
• barriers within organisations

Question 89

What’s the glass ceiling

Answer 89

A concept to explain the difference in social mobility between women and men. It refers to an invisible barrier that keeps women from achieving power and success equal to that of men

Question 90

What’s the concrete ceiling

Answer 90

Suggest that the situation has worsened and it now even more difficult for women to reach higher positions in society

Question 91

What’s the glass elevator

Answer 91

Refers to how men often rise higher and faster up the career ladder than women even in female dominated careers

It’s argued this happens due to hidden advantages:

• gender stereotypes that result in men being viewed as more natural leaders
• the way that women are often seen as making emotional decisions whereas men are viewed as making rational decisions
• views about women’s childbearing and family obligations
• the rarity of men in certain occupations which makes them stand out and may lead to preferential treatment

Question 92

What did weberians Barron and Norris argue about gender inequality and what date

Answer 92

Weberians Barron and Norris (1976) argue that there is a dual labour market and this concept has also been used to explain women’s employment patterns

The primary labour market consists of secure, well paid jobs that have good promotion prospects

The secondary labour market refers to jobs with low pay and poor security and promotion prospects

The suggestion is that women are concentrated in the secondary labour market

Question 93

Why is the weberian concept of status useful in explaining gender inequalities

Answer 93

It can be argued that women are more likely than men to work in the low status jobs in the secondary labour market

It’s argued that women’s domestic role isn’t held in high esteem in society and carries little status or power

Question 94

What did Weber use the concept of social closure to describe

Answer 94

To describe the exclusion of some people from membership of certain status groups

Feminists would be keep to point out that in contemporary society this is effectively what happens in relation to gender as men reserve and protect top positions for themselves

Question 95

What did the Electoral Commission (2004) find in their study Politicak activism gap

Answer 95

That there’s a political activism gap by gender

They found women are significantly less likely than men to participate in campaign orientated activities and are less likely to join voluntary organisations

They identified the following explanations for this:

• those in paid employment are more likely to be politically active
• the activism gap is smaller among better off households and those who have attended university and larger among those with the lowest levels of educational qualifications
• marital status is also a predictor of activism with married men more likely to participate than married women
• the gap is significant among those with children but closes among those without
• age and ethnicity also have an effect. Women from ethnic minorities are less active
• women have lower confidence that they can influence the political process
• mobilising organisations like trade unions encourage people to participate in public affairs and men are more likely to be a part of these unions
• the presence of women in representative institutions have an impact

Question 96

Evaluate weberian theory

Answer 96

• though Weberian concepts can be applied to gender inequalities, Weber neglected this area
• weberian concepts do not actually explain why some social groups such as men and women end up in differ sectors of the labour markets
• though weberian explanations look beyond class, the three dimensions that they examine are inner related as those who have economic power also tend to have a high standing in the community (status) and are able to use these to influence the political process
• postmodernists would argue there’s no longer a consensus about what constitutes high and low status as norms and values are no longer fixed
• radical feminists think it doesn’t consider patriarchy