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Discovering Psychology Bolded Vocab > HOSA Vocab > Flashcards

HOSA Vocab Flashcards

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1
Q

Abnormal psychology

A

The study of psychological disorders

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2
Q

Absolute threshold

A

The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected

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3
Q

Accommodation

A

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema

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4
Q

Achievement motivation

A

A desire to excel or outperform others

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5
Q

Acquisition

A

The development of a learned response

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6
Q

Action potential

A

The electrical signal arising in a neuron’s axon

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7
Q

Actor-observer bias

A

Emphasizing dispositional attributions to explain the behavior of others while emphasizing situational attributions to explain our own behavior

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8
Q

Adaption

A

A change because of natural selection

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9
Q

Adolescence

A

A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood

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10
Q

Affect heuristic

A

A rule of thumb in which we choose between alternatives based on emotional or “gut” reactions to stimuli

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11
Q

Affiliation

A

Being associated with other people

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12
Q

Aggression

A

The conscious intent to harm another person

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13
Q

Agoraphobia

A

Unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in a crowd

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14
Q

Agreeableness

A

A Big Five personality trait characterized by trustworthiness, altruism, trust, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness

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15
Q

Alarm reaction

A

The first stage of the general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by sympathetic arousal and mental clarity

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16
Q

Algorithm

A

A precise, step-by-step set of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem

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17
Q

Allele

A

One of several versions of a gene

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18
Q

Alpha waves

A

A waveform of 9-12 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates relaxed waking

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19
Q

Altruism

A

Behavior on behalf of another that fails to benefit or harms the individual performing it

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20
Q

Amygdala

A

A subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing

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21
Q

Anorexia nervosa

A

An eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of unusually low body weight and a distorted body image

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22
Q

Antidepressant medication

A

A medication designed to alleviate symptoms of depression, but often prescribed for other types of conditions

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23
Q

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)

A

A disorder characterized by an unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or regard for normal social rules and conventions

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24
Q

Anxiety disorder

A

A disorder featuring anxiety not proportional to a person’s circumstances

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25
Q

Aphasia

A

The loss of the ability to speak or understand language

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26
Q

Appraisal

A

The detection and assessment of stimuli that are relevant to personal well-being

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27
Q

Assimilation

A

The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema

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28
Q

Associative learning

A

The formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors

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29
Q

Attachment

A

Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver

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30
Q

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

A

A disorder characterized by unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both

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31
Q

Attitude

A

A positive or negative evaluation that predisposes behavior toward something

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32
Q

Attribution

A

A judgement about the cause of a person’s behavior

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33
Q

Audition

A

the sense of hearing

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34
Q

Auditory nerve

A

The nerve that carries sound info from the cochlea to the brain

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35
Q

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

A

A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behaviors

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36
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

Semantic or episodic memories referencing the self

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37
Q

Autonomic nervous system

A

The division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles

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38
Q

Availability heuristic

A

A rule of thumb in which the frequency of an event’s occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind

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39
Q

Aversion therapy

A

An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS

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40
Q

Axon

A

The branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting info to other neurons

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41
Q

Basal ganglia

A

A collection of subcortical structures that participate in the control of movement

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42
Q

Basilar membrane

A

Membrane in the cochlea on which the organ of Corti is located

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43
Q

Behavior therapy

A

Applications of classical and operant conditioning principles to the treatment of symptoms of psychological disorder and adjustment problems

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44
Q

Behavioral genetics

A

The scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behavior

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45
Q

Behaviorism

A

An approach that features the study and careful measurement of observable behaviors

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46
Q

Beta waves

A

A waveform of 15-30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates alert waking

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47
Q

Big Five theory

A

A trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences in personality

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48
Q

Bilingual

A

Proficient in two languages

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49
Q

Binge-eating disorder

A

An eating disorder characterized by eating abnormally large amounts of food at one sitting and feeling that eating is out of control, without compensatory behaviors such as induced vomiting or the use of laxitives

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50
Q

Binocular cues

A

A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes

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51
Q

Biological psychology

A

The psychological perspective that focuses on the relationships between mind and behavior, as well as their underlying biological processes, including genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, and physiology; also known as behavioral neuroscience

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52
Q

Biopsychosocial approach

A

An integrated approach to therapy that combines treatments addressing the biological, personal, and social underpinnings of psychological disorders

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53
Q

Biopsychosocial model

A

A model that sees health as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors

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54
Q

Bipolar disorder

A

A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression

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55
Q

Body dysmorphic disorder

A

Characterized by unrealistic perception of physical flaws

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56
Q

Body mass index (BMI)

A

A height-to-weight ratio used to identify healthy weight, underweight, overweight, and obesity

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57
Q

Borderline personality disorder (BPD)

A

Characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion

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58
Q

Bottom-up processing

A

Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions

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59
Q

Brainstem

A

Part of brain containing the midbrain, pons, and medulla

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60
Q

Brief therapy

A

Psychotherapy provided over a short time frame, usually between three and five sessions

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61
Q

Bulimia nervosa

A

An eating disorder characterized by bingeing, purging, and having feelings of depression, disgust, and lost control

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62
Q

Bystander interventions

A

The study of situational variables related to helping a stranger, most notably the decreased likelihood of helping as the number of bystanders increases

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63
Q

Candidate gene

A

A gene that has a greater impact on a trait of interest than other genes

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64
Q

Cannon-Bard theory

A

A theory of emotion featuring the simultaneous and independent occurrence of physical sensations and subjective feelings during an emotional experience

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65
Q

Case study

A

An in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people

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66
Q

Catharsis

A

A theory of emotion that view emotion as a reservoir that fills up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion will reduce arousal

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67
Q

Cell body

A

The large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus

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68
Q

Cerebellum

A

A structure attached to the brainstem that participates in skilled movement and, in humans, complex cognitive processing

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69
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

The thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres

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70
Q

Chunking

A

The process of grouping similar or meaningful information together

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71
Q

Cingulate cortex

A

A subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. Its anterior segment participates in decision making and emotion, and its posterior segment participates in memory and visual processing

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72
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

A daily biological rhythm

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73
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time

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74
Q

Clinical psychology

A

A psychological perspective that seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviors

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75
Q

Cochlea

A

The structure in the inner ear that contains auditory receptors

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76
Q

Cognition

A

Internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving

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77
Q

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

A

A combination of cognitive restructuring with behavioral treatments that has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of many psychological disorders

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78
Q

Cognitive consistency

A

A preference for holding congruent attitudes and beliefs

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79
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

The uncomfortable state that occurs when behavior and attitudes do not match and that can be resolved through attitude change

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80
Q

Cognitive psychology

A

A psychological perspective that investigates information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving

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81
Q

Cognitive restructuring

A

A technique used in cognitive therapies in which new, rational beliefs replace earlier, irrational beliefs held by the client

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82
Q

Coma

A

An abnormal state of deep unconsciousness

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83
Q

Comorbid

A

Two or more disorders in the same individual

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84
Q

Compliance

A

Agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority

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85
Q

Compulsion

A

Repetitive ritualistic behavior

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86
Q

Concept

A

An organizing principle derived from experience

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87
Q

Concordance rates

A

The statistical probability that a trait in one person will be shared by another; usually discussed in relation to identical and fraternal twins

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88
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 6 years and ending at the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning

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89
Q

Conditioned reinforcers

A

A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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90
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

A response learned through classical conditioning

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91
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning

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92
Q

Cones

A

A photoreceptor in the retina that processes color and fine detail

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93
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs

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94
Q

Conformity

A

Matching behavior and appearance to perceived social norms

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95
Q

Confounding variable

A

A variable that is irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher’s conclusions

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96
Q

Concientiousness

A

A Big Five personality trait characterized by competence, order, dutifulness, achievement, striving, self-discipline, and deliberation

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97
Q

Conciousness

A

A state of awareness

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98
Q

Conservation

A

The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity

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99
Q

Control group

A

A group that experiences all experimental procedures, with exception of exposure to the independent variable

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100
Q

Conventional morality

A

Lawrence Kohlberg’s state of moral development where moral choices are made according to law or public opinion

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101
Q

Cornea

A

The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina

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102
Q

Corpus callosum

A

A wide band of nerve fibers connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres

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103
Q

Correlation

A

A measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables

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104
Q

Correspondence bias

A

The tendency to view behavior as the result of disposition even when the behavior can be explained by the situation in which it occurs

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105
Q

Cortisol

A

A hormone released into the bloodstream from the adrenal glands

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106
Q

Counseling

A

A treatment originally proposed by humanistic therapists that includes a focus on personal strengths and development; the term is now used to refer to treatment for severe psychological disorders

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107
Q

Couples therapy

A

A type of family therapy that focuses on intimate relationships

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108
Q

Couples therapy

A

A type of family therapy that focuses on intimate relationships

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109
Q

COVID-19 Pandemic

A

anxiety across lifespan

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110
Q

Critical thinking

A

The ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently

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111
Q

Cross-sectional study

A

An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages

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112
Q

Cues

A

A stimulus that aids retrieval

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113
Q

Cultural diversity

A

Variations in the practices, values, and goals shared by groups of people

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114
Q

Declarative memory

A

A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize. including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memory

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115
Q

Deep brain stimulation

A

Electrical stimulation applied through surgically implanted electrodes that is used to treat some anxiety and mood disorders

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116
Q

Defense mechanism

A

In Sigmund Frued’s personality theory, a protective behavior that reduces anxiety

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117
Q

Deindividuation

A

Immersion of an individual within a group, leading to anonymity

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118
Q

Delta waves

A

A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates deep non-rapid eye movement sleep

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119
Q

Delusion

A

A false, illogical belief

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120
Q

Dendrite

A

A branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons

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121
Q

Dependent variable

A

A measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the result part of a hypothesis

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122
Q

Depth perception

A

The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions

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123
Q

Descriptive methods

A

Research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations

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124
Q

Descriptive statistics

A

Statistical methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value

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125
Q

Developmental psychology

A

A psychological perspective that examines the normal changes in behavior that occur across the life span

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126
Q

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

A

A system for classification of psychological disorders published by the American Psychiatric Asociation

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127
Q

Diathesis-stress model

A

A model that suggests that the experience of stress interacts with an individual’s biological predisposition to produce a psychological disorder

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128
Q

Difference threshold

A

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli

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129
Q

Discrimination

A

A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli

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130
Q

Display rule

A

A cultural norm that specifies when, where, and how a person should express an emotion

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131
Q

Dispositional attribution

A

A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to personal qualities or characteristics

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132
Q

Dissociative disorder

A

A disorder characterized by disruptions in a person’s identity, memory, or consciousness

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133
Q

Dominant

A

A feature of an allele that determines a phenotype in either the homozygous or the heterozygous condition

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134
Q

Door-in-the-face

A

A persuasive technique in which compliance with a target request is preceded by a large, unreasonable request

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135
Q

Dreaming

A

A mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery

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136
Q

Drive

A

A state of tension and arousal triggered by cues important for survival

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137
Q

Drive reduction

A

The state of relief and reward produced by removing the tension and arousal of the drive state

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138
Q

Ego

A

The component of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory that is the self that others see

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139
Q

Egocentrism

A

Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people

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140
Q

Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)

A

A model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing between the central and the peripheral route to persuasion

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141
Q

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A

A biological treatment in which seizures are induced in an anesthetized patient; it is used primarily in the treatment of mood disorders that have not responded to medication or other treatments

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142
Q

Embryo

A

The term used to describe a developing organism between the zygote and the fetus stages, or between 3 and 8 weeks after conception in humans

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143
Q

Emotion

A

A combination of arousal, physical sensations, and subjective feelings that occurs spontaneously in response to environmental stimuli

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144
Q

Emotion-focused coping

A

A response to stress that targets the negative emotions arising from the situation

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145
Q

Encoding

A

The transformation of information from one form to another

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146
Q

Encoding specificity

A

A process in which memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded

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147
Q

Endocrine system

A

A system responsible for the release of hormones into the bloodstream

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148
Q

Enteric nervous system

A

A division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of gastrointestinal system

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149
Q

Epigenetics

A

The study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes

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150
Q

Episodic memory

A

A memory for personal experiences

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151
Q

Evolution

A

Descent with modification from a common ancestor

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152
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A

A psychological perspective that investigates how physical structure and behavior have been shaped by their contributions to survival and reproduction

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153
Q

Exemplar

A

A specific member of a category used to represent the category

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154
Q

Exhaustion

A

The third and last stage of the general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by depletion of physical and psychological resources

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155
Q

Experiment

A

A research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality

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156
Q

Experimental group

A

A group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable

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157
Q

Extinction

A

The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS). In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior

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158
Q

Extroversion

A

One of the Big Five traits characterized by warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion; opposite of introversion

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159
Q

Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

A

A condition resulting from alcohol consumption by the mother during pregnancy that produces physical abnormalities and cognitive and behavioral problems in her child

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160
Q

Fetus

A

The term used to describe a developing organism between the embryo stage and birth, or between 8 and approximately 40 weeks following conception in humans

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161
Q

Fitness

A

The ability of one genotype to reproduce more successfully relative to other genotypes

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162
Q

Fixed interval (FI) schedule

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval is reinforced

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163
Q

Fixed ratio (FR) schedule

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which reiforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors

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164
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event

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165
Q

Flow

A

A state characterized by complete absorption in a current activity, such as work, problem solving, or creativity

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166
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

The ability to think logically without the need to use learned knowledge

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167
Q

Foot-in-the-door

A

A persuasive technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance with a larger request that might otherwise have been rejected

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168
Q

Forgetting

A

A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory

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169
Q

Formal operational stage

A

Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at age 12 and extending through adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities

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170
Q

Fovea

A

An area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision

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171
Q

Free association

A

The psychoanalytic technique of encouraging a patient to say whatever comes to mind, without attempting to censor the content

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172
Q

Frontal lobe

A

The most forward of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes

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173
Q

Functional fixedness

A

A possible barrier to successful problem solving in which a concept is considered only in its most typical form

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174
Q

Gamma waves

A

A waveform of more than 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that indicates attention to sensory input

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175
Q

Gate theory

A

The theory that suggests that input from touch fibers competes with input from pain receptors, posibbly preventing pain messages from reaching the brain

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176
Q

Gene expression

A

The process in which genetic instructions are converted into a feature of living

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177
Q

General adaption syndrome (GAS)

A

Hans Selyes’s three-stage model for an organism’s response to stressors

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178
Q

General intelligence

A

A measure of an individual’s overall intelligence as opposed to specific abilities

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179
Q

Generalization

A

The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS)

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180
Q

Generalize

A

To extend conclusions to larger populations outside the research sample

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181
Q

Genetic drift

A

Change in a population’s genes from one generation to the next because of chance or accident

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182
Q

Genomewide association study (GWAS)

A

A scan of complete sets of DNA from many participants, which is performed to look for variations associated with a particular phenotype, condition, or disease

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183
Q

Genotype

A

An individual’s profile of alleles

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184
Q

Giftedness

A

An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above

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185
Q

Glucose

A

A type of sugar that plays an important role in hunger levels

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186
Q

Group polarization

A

The intensifying of an attitude following discussion

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187
Q

Group therapy

A

Psychotherapy conducted with a group of people rather than individually

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188
Q

Groupthink

A

A type of flawed decision making in which a group does not question its decisions critically

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189
Q

Gustation

A

The sense of taste (chemical sense)

190
Q

Habituation

A

A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease

191
Q

Hallucination

A

A false perception

192
Q

Hallucinogen

A

A drug that stimulates the experience of false pereptions

193
Q

Health psychology

A

A branch of psychology that investigates the relationships between psychological variables and health

194
Q

Heritability

A

The statistical likelihood that variations observed in a population are because of genetics

195
Q

Heterozygous

A

Having two different alleles for a gene

196
Q

Heuristic

A

A shortcut to problem solving; also known as rule of thumb

197
Q

Higher-order conditioning

A

Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS) also elicit conditioned responses (CR)

198
Q

Hippocampus

A

A subcortical structure that participates in memory

199
Q

Homeostasis

A

A steady internal balance, or equilibrium

200
Q

Homozygous

A

Having two of the same alleles for a gene

201
Q

Humanistic psychology

A

An approach that saw people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve

202
Q

Humanistic therapy

A

A therapy approach patterned after the theories proposed by humanistic psychologists

203
Q

Hypnosis

A

An altered state of consciousness characterized by relaxation and increased suggestibility

204
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

A

A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of cortisol into the bloodstream

205
Q

Hypothalamus

A

A subcortical structure that participates in the regulation of thirst, temperature, hunger, sexual behavior, aggression

206
Q

Hypothesis

A

A proposed explain for situation

207
Q

Id

A

The component of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory containing primitive drives present at birth

208
Q

Identity

A

A consistent, unified sense of self

209
Q

Imitation

A

Copying behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously

210
Q

Immune system

A

The boy system that defends against infection and cancer

211
Q

Incentive

A

A reward that pulls an organism’s behavior in a particular direction

212
Q

Independent variable

A

An experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; the “if A happens” part of a hypothesis

213
Q

Inferential statistics

A

Statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations

214
Q

Informational processing

A

A continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition

215
Q

Informed consent

A

Permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained

216
Q

Inhibition

A

A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

217
Q

Insecure attachment

A

A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding that can take several forms is generally characterized as less desirable for the child’s outcomes than secure attachment

218
Q

Insight therapy

A

A therapy that improves symptoms of psychological disorder by building people’s understanding of their situation

219
Q

Insomnia

A

A sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep

220
Q

Instinct

A

An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern

221
Q

Intellectual disability

A

A condition diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores below 70 and poor adaptive behaviors; also known as mental retardation

222
Q

Intelligence

A

The ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles

223
Q

Intelligence quotient

A

A measure of individual intelligence relative to a statistically normal curve

224
Q

Interference

A

Competition between newer and older information in memory

225
Q

Interpersonal self

A

The self we are in the presence of other people

226
Q

Intrinsic reward

A

A reward that arises internally

227
Q

Introspection

A

A personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

228
Q

Introversion

A

One of the Big Five traits characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity, inactivity, caution, and negative emotion; opposite of extroversion

229
Q

Iris

A

The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye

230
Q

James-Lange theory

A

A theory of emotion that proposes that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings

231
Q

Just-world belief

A

The assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people

232
Q

Language

A

A system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals

233
Q

Latent inhibition

A

The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar

234
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement

235
Q

Learned helplessness

A

A state in which experiencing random or uncontrolled consequences leads to feelings of helplessness and possible depression

236
Q

Learning

A

A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience

237
Q

Lens

A

The clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina

238
Q

Leptin

A

A hormone secreted by fat cells that helps the body maintain an appropriate level of stored fat

239
Q

Levels of processing theory

A

The depths (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predict its ease of retrieval

240
Q

Locus of control

A

A cognitive expectancy featured in social-cognitive learning theories of personality about the source of individual outcomes; an external locus of control sees outcomes as resulting from luck or chance, while an internal locus of control sees outcomes as the result of individual effort

241
Q

Long-term memory

A

The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories

242
Q

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A

The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation

243
Q

Longitudinal study

A

An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time

244
Q

Low-balling

A

Making further requests of a person who has already committed to a course of action

245
Q

Lucid dreaming

A

A conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream

246
Q

Lymphocyte

A

White blood cells that are products of the immune system

247
Q

Major depressive disorder (MDD)

A

A disorder characterized by lengthy periods of depressed mood, loss of pleasure in normal activities, disturbances in sleep and appetite, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness, and possible thoughts of suicide

248
Q

Major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern

A

A mood disorder in which depression occurs regularly at the same time each year, usually during the winter months; formerly known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

249
Q

Mania

A

A period of unrealistically elevated mood

250
Q

Mean

A

The numerical average of a set of scores

251
Q

Median

A

The halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below

252
Q

Meditation

A

A voluntary alteration of consciousness characterized by positive emotion and absence of thought

253
Q

Medulla

A

The brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord

254
Q

Memory

A

The ability to retain knowledge

255
Q

Menopause

A

The complete cessation of a woman’s menstrual cycles

256
Q

Mere exposure effect

A

A situation in which repeated exposure increases liking

257
Q

Meta-analysis

A

A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic

258
Q

Method of successive approximations

A

A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as shaping

259
Q

Midbrain

A

The part of the brainstem that lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres

260
Q

Migration

A

Movement to a new location

261
Q

Mind

A

The brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior

262
Q

Mixed longitudinal design

A

A method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies

263
Q

Mnemonics

A

Memory aids that link new info to well-known info

264
Q

Mode

A

The most frequently occurring score in a set of data

265
Q

Monocular cues

A

A depth cue that requires the use of only one eye

266
Q

Morpheme

A

The smallest component of speech that carries meaning

267
Q

Motivated forgetting

A

Failure to retrieve negative memories

268
Q

Motivation

A

A process that arouses, maintains, and guides behavior toward a goal

269
Q

Mutation

A

An error that occurs when DNA is replicated

270
Q

Myelin

A

The insulating material covering some axons

271
Q

Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)

A

A disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and low empathy

272
Q

Narcolepsy

A

A sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of rapid eye movement phenomena into waking

273
Q

Natural sciences

A

Sciences that study the physical and biological events that occur in nature

274
Q

Natural selection

A

The process by which survival and reproduction pressures act to change the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations

275
Q

Naturalistic observation

A

An in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting

276
Q

Nature

A

The contributions of heredity to our physical structure and behaviors in development

277
Q

Near-death experiences

A

An altered state of consciousness reported by people who were close to death because of cardiac or other medical problems that features out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end-of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of calmness

278
Q

Negative punishment

A

A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs

279
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

A method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence

280
Q

Neo-Freudian

A

A theorist who attempted to update and modify Sigmund Freud’s original theory of personality

281
Q

Neurofeedback

A

A type of biofeedback used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and seizures by teaching the client to keep measures of rain activity within a certain range

282
Q

Neuron

A

A cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neural messages

283
Q

Neuroticism

A

A Big Five personality trait characterized by anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity, and vulnerability

284
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse

285
Q

Non-rapid eye movement (N-REM)

A

The components of sleep characterized by theta and delta wave activity, as recorded by electroencephalogram, and deep physical relaxation

286
Q

Nonassociative learning

A

Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli

287
Q

Nondeclarative memory

A

An unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memory

288
Q

Nucleus accumbens

A

A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction

289
Q

Null hypothesis

A

A hypothesis stating the default position that there is no real difference between two measures

290
Q

Nuture

A

The contributions of environmental factors and experience to our physical structure and behaviors

291
Q

Obedience

A

Compliance with a request from an authority figure

292
Q

Object permanence

A

The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present

293
Q

Objectivity

A

The practice of basing conclusions on facts without the influence of personal emotion and bias

294
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism; also known as social learning or modeling

295
Q

Obsession

A

An intrusive, distressing thought

296
Q

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

A

A disorder associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions

297
Q

Occipital lobe

A

The lobe of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex

298
Q

Olfaction

A

The sense of smell

299
Q

Olfactory bulbs

A

One of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that recieve input from the olfactory receptors in the nose

300
Q

Olfactory nerve

A

A nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs

301
Q

Openess

A

A Big Five personality trait characterized by an appreciation for fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas, values, and aesthetics

302
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes

303
Q

Operationalization

A

Defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured

304
Q

Opponent process theory

A

A theory of color vision that suggests we have a red-green color channel and a blue-yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other color

305
Q

Optic nerve

A

The nerve exiting the retina of the eye

306
Q

Optic tracts

A

Nerve pathways traveling from the optic chiasm to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain

307
Q

Optimism

A

Thinking positively about the future

308
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex

A

A part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control

309
Q

Organ of Corti

A

A structure located on the basilar membrane that contains auditory receptors

310
Q

Panic attack

A

The experience of intense fear and autonomic arousal in the absence of a real threat

311
Q

Panic disorder

A

A disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks

312
Q

Papillae

A

Small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds

313
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

The part of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage

314
Q

Parietal lobe

A

The lobe of the cerebral cortex that lies at the top of the head between the frontal and the occipital lobe; location of the primary somatosensory cortex

315
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others

316
Q

Partial reinforcement effect in extinction

A

The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement

317
Q

Peer review

A

The process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication

318
Q

Perception

A

The process of interpreting sensory information

319
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

The nerves exiting the central nervous system that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body

320
Q

Person-centered therapy

A

A humanistic therapy approach developed by Carl Rogers to help clients achieve congruence, or an alignment of the real and ideal selves

321
Q

Personality

A

An individual’s characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving

322
Q

Personality disorder

A

A disorder characterized by impairments in identity in personality traits, and in establishment of empathy or intimacy

323
Q

Personality inventory

A

An objective test, often using numbered scales or multiple choice, used to assess peronality

324
Q

Persuasion

A

A change in attitude in response to information provided by another person

325
Q

Phenotype

A

An observable characteristic

326
Q

Phonemes

A

A speech sound

327
Q

Pons

A

A part of the brainstem located between the medulla and the midbrain

328
Q

Population

A

The entire group from which a sample is taken

329
Q

Positive psychology

A

An approach to psychology that emphasizes normal behavior and human strengths

330
Q

Positive punishment

A

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus

331
Q

Postconventional morality

A

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason

332
Q

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

A

A disorder caused by the experience of trauma, which leads to flashbacks, dreams, hypervigilance, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event

333
Q

Preconventional morality

A

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stage at which moral choices are made according to expectations of reward or punishment

334
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A

The most forward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex

335
Q

Prejudice

A

A prejudgment, usually negative, or another person on the basis of membership in a group

336
Q

Preoperational stage

A

Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years and ending at the age of 6 years

337
Q

Priming

A

A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus

338
Q

Problem

A

A situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state by obstacles

339
Q

Problem solving

A

The use of information to meet a specific goal

340
Q

Problem-focused coping

A

A response to stress designed to address specific problems by finding solutions

341
Q

Procedural memory

A

A nondeclarative or implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement

342
Q

Projective tests

A

A test of personality based on Freudian theory that provides an ambiguous stimulus onto which test takers “project” their personality

343
Q

Prototype

A

A representation of a category formed by averaging all members of the category

344
Q

Psychiatrist

A

A medical doctor who specializes in psychiatry and can use medical procedures, such as the prescribing of medication, to treat psychological disorders

345
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Any drug with the capability of altering a person’s state of consciousness

346
Q

Psychoanalysis

A

Sigmund Freud’s treatment approach based on his psychodynamic theory

347
Q

Psychodynamic

A

A theory put forward by Sigmund Freud in which psychic energy moves among the compartments of the personality : Id, ego, and superego

348
Q

Psychology

A

The scientific study of behavior, mental processes, and brain functions

349
Q

Psychophysics

A

The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce

350
Q

Psychosexual stage

A

A stage in Sigmund Freud’s theory of the developing personality

351
Q

Psychosurgery

A

The attempt to improve symptoms of psychological disorders through operating on the brain

352
Q

Psychotherapist

A

A licensed professional who provides psychotherapy

353
Q

Psychotherapy

A

A treatment designed to improve symptoms of psychological disorder through conversation between the therapist and the patient or client

354
Q

Puberty

A

A period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity

355
Q

Punishment

A

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior

356
Q

Pupil

A

An opening formed by the iris

357
Q

Random assignment

A

The procedure in which each participant has an equal change of being place in any group in an experiment

358
Q

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

A

The component of sleep characterized by waveforms resembling waking, as measured by electroencephalogram, accompanied by rapid motion of the eyes, muscular paralysis, and sympathetic nervous system activation

359
Q

Receptor

A

A special channel in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons

360
Q

Recessive

A

A feature of an allele that produces only a phenotype in the homozygous condition

361
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Help that you provide for another person when you expect the person to return the favor in the future

362
Q

Reciprocal determinism

A

A social-cognitive learning theory of personality that features the mutual influence of the person and that of the situation on each other

363
Q

Recognition heurisitc

A

A rule of thumb in which a higher value in space on the more easily recognized alternative

364
Q

Reconstruction

A

Rebuilding a memory in which a higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alerternative

365
Q

Reflex

A

An inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli

366
Q

Rehearsal

A

Repetition of information

367
Q

Relatedness

A

The probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor

368
Q

Relationship-focused coping

A

A response to stress designed to maintain and protect social relationships

369
Q

Reliability

A

The consistency of a measure, including test-retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency

370
Q

Replication

A

Repeating an experiment and producing the same results

371
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

A rule of thumb in which stimuli similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely that stimuli that are dissimilar to a prototype

372
Q

Resilience

A

The ability to adapt to life’s challenges in positive ways

373
Q

Resistance

A

A psychoanalytic technique in which the patient’s reluctance to accept the interpretations of the therapist indicate that the interpretations are correct

374
Q

Resistance

A

The second stage of general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by coping with ongoing stress

375
Q

Resting potential

A

The measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neuron is not processing information

376
Q

Restless legs syndrome (RLS)

A

A disorder characterized by the involuntary movement of an extremity, usually one leg

377
Q

Reticular formation

A

A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem that participate in mood, arousal, and sleep

378
Q

Retina

A

Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye

379
Q

Retinal disparity

A

The difference between the images projected onto each eye

380
Q

Retrieval

A

The recovery of stored information

381
Q

Reuptake

A

A process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released

382
Q

Rods

A

A photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light

383
Q

Sample

A

A subset of a population being studied

384
Q

Satiety

A

A sense of feeling full and not requiring further food

385
Q

Schater-Singer two-factor theory

A

A theory of emotion in which general arousal leads to assessment, which in turn leads to subjective feelings

386
Q

Schema

A

A set of expectations about objects and situation

387
Q

Schizophrenia

A

A disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized though and speech, disorders of movement, restricted affect, and avolition or asociality

388
Q

Science

A

A method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation

389
Q

Secondary sex characteristics

A

Physical changes occuring at puberty associated with sexual maturity

390
Q

Secure attachment

A

A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance

391
Q

Seizures

A

An abnormal level of brain activation with a sudden onset

392
Q

Self

A

Patterns of thought, feelings, and actions that we perceive in our own minds

393
Q

Self-actualization

A

A state of having fulfilled your potential

394
Q

Self-awareness

A

The special understanding of the self as distinct from other stimuli

395
Q

Self-concept

A

People’s description of their own characteristics

396
Q

Self-esteem

A

A judgement of the value of the self

397
Q

Self-schema

A

A cognitive organization that helps us think about the self and process self-relevant information

398
Q

Self-serving bias

A

Attributing success to dispositional factors while attributing failure to situational favtors

399
Q

Semantic memory

A

A general knowledge memory

400
Q

Sensation

A

The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body

401
Q

Sensitization

A

An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus

402
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

Jean Piaget’s stage of development beginning at birth and ending at the age of 2 years and characterized by exploration of the environment

403
Q

Sensory adaption

A

The tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulation

404
Q

Sensory memory

A

The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time

405
Q

Signal detection

A

The analysis of sensory and decision-making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli

406
Q

Situational attribution

A

A judgment assigning the cause of a person’s behavior to the environment

407
Q

Sleep

A

A normal state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness of external stimuli

408
Q

Sleep apnea

A

A sleep disorder in which the person stops breathing while asleep

409
Q

Sleep terror

A

A sleep disorder occurring in non-rapid eye movement sleep in which the sleeper wakes suddenly in great distress but without experiencing the imagery of a nightmare

410
Q

Social anxiety disorder

A

A disorder characterized by an unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by others

411
Q

Social facilitation

A

A situation in which the presence of other people changes performance

412
Q

Social loafing

A

Reduced motivation and effort shown by individuals working in a group

413
Q

Social norms

A

Usually unwritten or unspoken rules for behavior in social settings

414
Q

Social-cognitive learning theory

A

A theory of personality that features cognition and learning, especially from the social environment, as important sources of individual differences in personality

415
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

The part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles

416
Q

Somatic smptom disorder

A

A disorder that is diagnosed when people are unusually concerned and preoccupied with chronic somatic symptoms

417
Q

Somatosensation

A

The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain

418
Q

Somatovisceral afference model of emotion (SAME)

A

A model of emotion in which a range of physical sensations from precise to general requires varying degrees of cognitive processing prior to subjective feelings

419
Q

Specific phobia

A

Fears of objects other that those associated with agoraphobia or social anxiety disorder

420
Q

Spinal cord

A

A long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back, part of the central nervous system

421
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest

422
Q

Spreading activation model

A

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences

423
Q

Standard deviation

A

A measure of how tightly clustered around the mean of a group of scores

424
Q

Statistical significance

A

A standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance

425
Q

Stereotype

A

A simplified set of traits associated with membership in a group or category

426
Q

Stimulants

A

Any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system

427
Q

Storage

A

The retention of information

428
Q

Stress

A

An unpleasant emotional state that results from the perception of danger

429
Q

Stressor

A

A stimulus that serves as a source of stress

430
Q

Structuralism

A

An approach in which the mind is broken into the smallest elements of mental experience

431
Q

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

A

A sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep

432
Q

Superego

A

The component of Sigmund Freud’s personality theory that internalizes society’s rules for right and wrong, or the conscience

433
Q

Survey

A

A descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions

434
Q

Sympathetic adrenal-medullary (SAM) system

A

A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream

435
Q

Sympathetic nervous sytem

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal

436
Q

Synapse

A

A point of communication between two neurons

437
Q

Systemic desensitization

A

A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear

438
Q

Tardive dyskenesia

A

A movement syndrome that results from the use of medications used to treat symptoms of schizophrenia

439
Q

Taste buds

A

A structure found in papillae that contains taste receptor cells

440
Q

Temperament

A

A child’s pattern of mood, activity, or emotional responsiveness linked to later personality

441
Q

Temporal lobe

A

The lobe of the cerebral cortex that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex

442
Q

Teratogen

A

A chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus

443
Q

Testosterone

A

A male hormone

444
Q

Thalamus

A

A subcortical structure involved with the processing of sensory information, states of arousal, and learning and memory

445
Q

Theory

A

A set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena

446
Q

Theory of mind (TOM)

A

The understanding that other have thoughts that are different from one;s own

447
Q

Theta wave

A

A waveform of four to seven cycles pers second recorded by electroencephalogram (EEG) that is characteristic of lighter stages of non-rapid eye movement (N-REM) sleep

448
Q

Third variable

A

A variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest

449
Q

Token economy

A

An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors

450
Q

Tolerance

A

The need to administer greater quantities of a drug to achieve the same subjective effect

451
Q

Top-down processing

A

A perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information

452
Q

Trait

A

A stable personality characteristic

453
Q

Transduction

A

The translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals

454
Q

Transference

A

A psychoanalytic technique in which the therapist uses the responses of the patient to the therapist to understand the patient’s approach to authority figures in general

455
Q

Trichromatic theory

A

A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for detection of short, medium, and long wavelengths

456
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience

457
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

A stimulus that elicits a response without a prior experience

458
Q

Unconscious mind

A

The part of mental activity that cannot be voluntarily retrieved

459
Q

Validity

A

A quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e., the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do)

460
Q

Variable

A

A factor that has a range of values

461
Q

Variable interval (VI) schedule

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period is reinforced

462
Q

Variable ratio (VR) schedule

A

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors

463
Q

Vegetative state (VS)

A

An abnormal state following brain injury featuring wakefulness without consciousness

464
Q

Vestibular system

A

The system in the inner ear that provides information about body position and movement

465
Q

Vision

A

The sense that allows us to process reflected light

466
Q

Waking

A

A normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli

467
Q

Withdrawal

A

Physical responses to the removal of some habitually administered drugs

468
Q

Working memory

A

An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information

469
Q

Yerkes-Dodson law

A

A description of the relationships among tasks complexity, arousal, and performance

470
Q

Zygote

A

The term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception until the embryo stage, or the first 2 week following conception in humans

Discovering Psychology Bolded Vocab (1 decks)

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