HOSA Vocab Flashcards
1
Q
Abnormal psychology
A
The study of psychological disorders
2
Q
Absolute threshold
A
The smallest amount of stimulus that can be detected
3
Q
Accommodation
A
The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema
4
Q
Achievement motivation
A
A desire to excel or outperform others
5
Q
Acquisition
A
The development of a learned response
6
Q
Action potential
A
The electrical signal arising in a neuron’s axon
7
Q
Actor-observer bias
A
Emphasizing dispositional attributions to explain the behavior of others while emphasizing situational attributions to explain our own behavior
8
Q
Adaption
A
A change because of natural selection
9
Q
Adolescence
A
A period of development beginning at puberty and ending at young adulthood
10
Q
Affect heuristic
A
A rule of thumb in which we choose between alternatives based on emotional or “gut” reactions to stimuli
11
Q
Affiliation
A
Being associated with other people
12
Q
Aggression
A
The conscious intent to harm another person
13
Q
Agoraphobia
A
Unrealistic fear of open spaces, being outside the home alone, or being in a crowd
14
Q
Agreeableness
A
A Big Five personality trait characterized by trustworthiness, altruism, trust, compliance, modesty, and tender mindedness
15
Q
Alarm reaction
A
The first stage of the general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by sympathetic arousal and mental clarity
16
Q
Algorithm
A
A precise, step-by-step set of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem
17
Q
Allele
A
One of several versions of a gene
18
Q
Alpha waves
A
A waveform of 9-12 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates relaxed waking
19
Q
Altruism
A
Behavior on behalf of another that fails to benefit or harms the individual performing it
20
Q
Amygdala
A
A subcortical structure located in the temporal lobe believed to participate in emotional processing
21
Q
Anorexia nervosa
A
An eating disorder characterized by the maintenance of unusually low body weight and a distorted body image
22
Q
Antidepressant medication
A
A medication designed to alleviate symptoms of depression, but often prescribed for other types of conditions
23
Q
Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD)
A
A disorder characterized by an unusual lack of remorse, empathy, or regard for normal social rules and conventions
24
Q
Anxiety disorder
A
A disorder featuring anxiety not proportional to a person’s circumstances
25
Aphasia
The loss of the ability to speak or understand language
26
Appraisal
The detection and assessment of stimuli that are relevant to personal well-being
27
Assimilation
The incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema
28
Associative learning
The formation of associations, or connections, among stimuli and behaviors
29
Attachment
Emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver
30
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
A disorder characterized by unusual inattentiveness, hyperactivity with impulsivity, or both
31
Attitude
A positive or negative evaluation that predisposes behavior toward something
32
Attribution
A judgement about the cause of a person's behavior
33
Audition
the sense of hearing
34
Auditory nerve
The nerve that carries sound info from the cochlea to the brain
35
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
A disorder characterized by deficits in social relatedness and communication skills that are often accompanied by repetitive, ritualistic behaviors
36
Autobiographical memory
Semantic or episodic memories referencing the self
37
Autonomic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that directs the activity of glands, organs, and smooth muscles
38
Availability heuristic
A rule of thumb in which the frequency of an event's occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind
39
Aversion therapy
An application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) formerly paired with a pleasurable unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is instead paired with an unpleasant UCS
40
Axon
The branch of a neuron that is usually responsible for transmitting info to other neurons
41
Basal ganglia
A collection of subcortical structures that participate in the control of movement
42
Basilar membrane
Membrane in the cochlea on which the organ of Corti is located
43
Behavior therapy
Applications of classical and operant conditioning principles to the treatment of symptoms of psychological disorder and adjustment problems
44
Behavioral genetics
The scientific field that attempts to identify and understand links between genetics and behavior
45
Behaviorism
An approach that features the study and careful measurement of observable behaviors
46
Beta waves
A waveform of 15-30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates alert waking
47
Big Five theory
A trait theory that identifies five main characteristics that account for most individual differences in personality
48
Bilingual
Proficient in two languages
49
Binge-eating disorder
An eating disorder characterized by eating abnormally large amounts of food at one sitting and feeling that eating is out of control, without compensatory behaviors such as induced vomiting or the use of laxitives
50
Binocular cues
A depth cue that requires the use of both eyes
51
Biological psychology
The psychological perspective that focuses on the relationships between mind and behavior, as well as their underlying biological processes, including genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, and physiology; also known as behavioral neuroscience
52
Biopsychosocial approach
An integrated approach to therapy that combines treatments addressing the biological, personal, and social underpinnings of psychological disorders
53
Biopsychosocial model
A model that sees health as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors
54
Bipolar disorder
A mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression
55
Body dysmorphic disorder
Characterized by unrealistic perception of physical flaws
56
Body mass index (BMI)
A height-to-weight ratio used to identify healthy weight, underweight, overweight, and obesity
57
Borderline personality disorder (BPD)
Characterized by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotion
58
Bottom-up processing
Perception based on building simple input into more complex perceptions
59
Brainstem
Part of brain containing the midbrain, pons, and medulla
60
Brief therapy
Psychotherapy provided over a short time frame, usually between three and five sessions
61
Bulimia nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by bingeing, purging, and having feelings of depression, disgust, and lost control
62
Bystander interventions
The study of situational variables related to helping a stranger, most notably the decreased likelihood of helping as the number of bystanders increases
63
Candidate gene
A gene that has a greater impact on a trait of interest than other genes
64
Cannon-Bard theory
A theory of emotion featuring the simultaneous and independent occurrence of physical sensations and subjective feelings during an emotional experience
65
Case study
An in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people
66
Catharsis
A theory of emotion that view emotion as a reservoir that fills up and spills over; it predicts that expressing an emotion will reduce arousal
67
Cell body
The large, central mass of a neuron, containing the nucleus
68
Cerebellum
A structure attached to the brainstem that participates in skilled movement and, in humans, complex cognitive processing
69
Cerebral cortex
The thin layer of neurons covering the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres
70
Chunking
The process of grouping similar or meaningful information together
71
Cingulate cortex
A subcortical structure above the corpus callosum. Its anterior segment participates in decision making and emotion, and its posterior segment participates in memory and visual processing
72
Circadian rhythms
A daily biological rhythm
73
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time
74
Clinical psychology
A psychological perspective that seeks to explain, define, and treat abnormal behaviors
75
Cochlea
The structure in the inner ear that contains auditory receptors
76
Cognition
Internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
77
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
A combination of cognitive restructuring with behavioral treatments that has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms of many psychological disorders
78
Cognitive consistency
A preference for holding congruent attitudes and beliefs
79
Cognitive dissonance
The uncomfortable state that occurs when behavior and attitudes do not match and that can be resolved through attitude change
80
Cognitive psychology
A psychological perspective that investigates information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving
81
Cognitive restructuring
A technique used in cognitive therapies in which new, rational beliefs replace earlier, irrational beliefs held by the client
82
Coma
An abnormal state of deep unconsciousness
83
Comorbid
Two or more disorders in the same individual
84
Compliance
Agreement with a request from a person with no perceived authority
85
Compulsion
Repetitive ritualistic behavior
86
Concept
An organizing principle derived from experience
87
Concordance rates
The statistical probability that a trait in one person will be shared by another; usually discussed in relation to identical and fraternal twins
88
Concrete operational stage
Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of 6 years and ending at the age of 12 years and characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning
89
Conditioned reinforcers
A reinforcer that gains value from being associated with other things that are valued; also known as a secondary reinforcer
90
Conditioned response (CR)
A response learned through classical conditioning
91
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning
92
Cones
A photoreceptor in the retina that processes color and fine detail
93
Confirmation bias
The tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs
94
Conformity
Matching behavior and appearance to perceived social norms
95
Confounding variable
A variable that is irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter a researcher's conclusions
96
Concientiousness
A Big Five personality trait characterized by competence, order, dutifulness, achievement, striving, self-discipline, and deliberation
97
Conciousness
A state of awareness
98
Conservation
The ability to understand that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity
99
Control group
A group that experiences all experimental procedures, with exception of exposure to the independent variable
100
Conventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg's state of moral development where moral choices are made according to law or public opinion
101
Cornea
The clear surface at the front of the eye that begins the process of directing light to the retina
102
Corpus callosum
A wide band of nerve fibers connecting the right and left cerebral hemispheres
103
Correlation
A measure of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables
104
Correspondence bias
The tendency to view behavior as the result of disposition even when the behavior can be explained by the situation in which it occurs
105
Cortisol
A hormone released into the bloodstream from the adrenal glands
106
Counseling
A treatment originally proposed by humanistic therapists that includes a focus on personal strengths and development; the term is now used to refer to treatment for severe psychological disorders
107
Couples therapy
A type of family therapy that focuses on intimate relationships
108
Couples therapy
A type of family therapy that focuses on intimate relationships
109
COVID-19 Pandemic
anxiety across lifespan
110
Critical thinking
The ability to think clearly, rationally, and independently
111
Cross-sectional study
An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people of differing ages
112
Cues
A stimulus that aids retrieval
113
Cultural diversity
Variations in the practices, values, and goals shared by groups of people
114
Declarative memory
A consciously retrieved memory that is easy to verbalize. including semantic, episodic, and autobiographical information; also known as explicit memory
115
Deep brain stimulation
Electrical stimulation applied through surgically implanted electrodes that is used to treat some anxiety and mood disorders
116
Defense mechanism
In Sigmund Frued's personality theory, a protective behavior that reduces anxiety
117
Deindividuation
Immersion of an individual within a group, leading to anonymity
118
Delta waves
A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that usually indicates deep non-rapid eye movement sleep
119
Delusion
A false, illogical belief
120
Dendrite
A branch from the neural cell body that usually receives input from other neurons
121
Dependent variable
A measure that demonstrates the effects of an independent variable; the result part of a hypothesis
122
Depth perception
The ability to use the two-dimensional image projected on the retina to perceive three dimensions
123
Descriptive methods
Research methods designed for making careful, systematic observations
124
Descriptive statistics
Statistical methods that organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries, such as finding the average value
125
Developmental psychology
A psychological perspective that examines the normal changes in behavior that occur across the life span
126
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
A system for classification of psychological disorders published by the American Psychiatric Asociation
127
Diathesis-stress model
A model that suggests that the experience of stress interacts with an individual's biological predisposition to produce a psychological disorder
128
Difference threshold
The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli
129
Discrimination
A learned ability to distinguish between stimuli
130
Display rule
A cultural norm that specifies when, where, and how a person should express an emotion
131
Dispositional attribution
A judgment assigning the cause of a person's behavior to personal qualities or characteristics
132
Dissociative disorder
A disorder characterized by disruptions in a person's identity, memory, or consciousness
133
Dominant
A feature of an allele that determines a phenotype in either the homozygous or the heterozygous condition
134
Door-in-the-face
A persuasive technique in which compliance with a target request is preceded by a large, unreasonable request
135
Dreaming
A mental state that usually occurs during sleep that features visual imagery
136
Drive
A state of tension and arousal triggered by cues important for survival
137
Drive reduction
The state of relief and reward produced by removing the tension and arousal of the drive state
138
Ego
The component of Sigmund Freud's personality theory that is the self that others see
139
Egocentrism
Limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people
140
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM)
A model that predicts responses to persuasive messages by distinguishing between the central and the peripheral route to persuasion
141
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A biological treatment in which seizures are induced in an anesthetized patient; it is used primarily in the treatment of mood disorders that have not responded to medication or other treatments
142
Embryo
The term used to describe a developing organism between the zygote and the fetus stages, or between 3 and 8 weeks after conception in humans
143
Emotion
A combination of arousal, physical sensations, and subjective feelings that occurs spontaneously in response to environmental stimuli
144
Emotion-focused coping
A response to stress that targets the negative emotions arising from the situation
145
Encoding
The transformation of information from one form to another
146
Encoding specificity
A process in which memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded
147
Endocrine system
A system responsible for the release of hormones into the bloodstream
148
Enteric nervous system
A division of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerve cells embedded in the lining of gastrointestinal system
149
Epigenetics
The study of gene-environment interactions in the production of phenotypes
150
Episodic memory
A memory for personal experiences
151
Evolution
Descent with modification from a common ancestor
152
Evolutionary psychology
A psychological perspective that investigates how physical structure and behavior have been shaped by their contributions to survival and reproduction
153
Exemplar
A specific member of a category used to represent the category
154
Exhaustion
The third and last stage of the general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by depletion of physical and psychological resources
155
Experiment
A research method that tests hypotheses and allows researchers to make conclusions about causality
156
Experimental group
A group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable
157
Extinction
The reduction of a learned response. In classical conditioning, extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) no longer follows the conditioned stimulus (CS). In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when the consequence no longer follows the learned behavior
158
Extroversion
One of the Big Five traits characterized by warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and positive emotion; opposite of introversion
159
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
A condition resulting from alcohol consumption by the mother during pregnancy that produces physical abnormalities and cognitive and behavioral problems in her child
160
Fetus
The term used to describe a developing organism between the embryo stage and birth, or between 8 and approximately 40 weeks following conception in humans
161
Fitness
The ability of one genotype to reproduce more successfully relative to other genotypes
162
Fixed interval (FI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a specified interval is reinforced
163
Fixed ratio (FR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reiforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors
164
Flashbulb memory
An especially vivid and detailed memory of an emotional event
165
Flow
A state characterized by complete absorption in a current activity, such as work, problem solving, or creativity
166
Fluid intelligence
The ability to think logically without the need to use learned knowledge
167
Foot-in-the-door
A persuasive technique in which compliance with a small request is followed by compliance with a larger request that might otherwise have been rejected
168
Forgetting
A decrease in the ability to remember a previously formed memory
169
Formal operational stage
Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at age 12 and extending through adulthood and characterized by mature reasoning capabilities
170
Fovea
An area of the retina that is specialized for highly detailed vision
171
Free association
The psychoanalytic technique of encouraging a patient to say whatever comes to mind, without attempting to censor the content
172
Frontal lobe
The most forward of the four lobes of the cerebral cortex; location of the primary motor cortex and areas responsible for some of the most complex cognitive processes
173
Functional fixedness
A possible barrier to successful problem solving in which a concept is considered only in its most typical form
174
Gamma waves
A waveform of more than 30 cycles per second recorded by electroencephalogram that indicates attention to sensory input
175
Gate theory
The theory that suggests that input from touch fibers competes with input from pain receptors, posibbly preventing pain messages from reaching the brain
176
Gene expression
The process in which genetic instructions are converted into a feature of living
177
General adaption syndrome (GAS)
Hans Selyes's three-stage model for an organism's response to stressors
178
General intelligence
A measure of an individual's overall intelligence as opposed to specific abilities
179
Generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus (CS)
180
Generalize
To extend conclusions to larger populations outside the research sample
181
Genetic drift
Change in a population's genes from one generation to the next because of chance or accident
182
Genomewide association study (GWAS)
A scan of complete sets of DNA from many participants, which is performed to look for variations associated with a particular phenotype, condition, or disease
183
Genotype
An individual's profile of alleles
184
Giftedness
An extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above
185
Glucose
A type of sugar that plays an important role in hunger levels
186
Group polarization
The intensifying of an attitude following discussion
187
Group therapy
Psychotherapy conducted with a group of people rather than individually
188
Groupthink
A type of flawed decision making in which a group does not question its decisions critically
189
Gustation
The sense of taste (chemical sense)
190
Habituation
A simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease
191
Hallucination
A false perception
192
Hallucinogen
A drug that stimulates the experience of false pereptions
193
Health psychology
A branch of psychology that investigates the relationships between psychological variables and health
194
Heritability
The statistical likelihood that variations observed in a population are because of genetics
195
Heterozygous
Having two different alleles for a gene
196
Heuristic
A shortcut to problem solving; also known as rule of thumb
197
Higher-order conditioning
Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS) also elicit conditioned responses (CR)
198
Hippocampus
A subcortical structure that participates in memory
199
Homeostasis
A steady internal balance, or equilibrium
200
Homozygous
Having two of the same alleles for a gene
201
Humanistic psychology
An approach that saw people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve
202
Humanistic therapy
A therapy approach patterned after the theories proposed by humanistic psychologists
203
Hypnosis
An altered state of consciousness characterized by relaxation and increased suggestibility
204
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of cortisol into the bloodstream
205
Hypothalamus
A subcortical structure that participates in the regulation of thirst, temperature, hunger, sexual behavior, aggression
206
Hypothesis
A proposed explain for situation
207
Id
The component of Sigmund Freud's personality theory containing primitive drives present at birth
208
Identity
A consistent, unified sense of self
209
Imitation
Copying behavior that is unlikely to occur naturally and spontaneously
210
Immune system
The boy system that defends against infection and cancer
211
Incentive
A reward that pulls an organism's behavior in a particular direction
212
Independent variable
An experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; the "if A happens" part of a hypothesis
213
Inferential statistics
Statistical methods that allow experimenters to extend conclusions from samples to larger populations
214
Informational processing
A continuum including attention, sensation, perception, learning, memory, and cognition
215
Informed consent
Permission obtained from a research participant after the risks and benefits of an experimental procedure have been thoroughly explained
216
Inhibition
A feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
217
Insecure attachment
A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding that can take several forms is generally characterized as less desirable for the child's outcomes than secure attachment
218
Insight therapy
A therapy that improves symptoms of psychological disorder by building people's understanding of their situation
219
Insomnia
A sleep disorder characterized by an inability to either initiate or maintain normal sleep
220
Instinct
An inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern
221
Intellectual disability
A condition diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores below 70 and poor adaptive behaviors; also known as mental retardation
222
Intelligence
The ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome obstacles
223
Intelligence quotient
A measure of individual intelligence relative to a statistically normal curve
224
Interference
Competition between newer and older information in memory
225
Interpersonal self
The self we are in the presence of other people
226
Intrinsic reward
A reward that arises internally
227
Introspection
A personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
228
Introversion
One of the Big Five traits characterized by coolness, reserve, passivity, inactivity, caution, and negative emotion; opposite of extroversion
229
Iris
The brightly colored circular muscle surrounding the pupil of the eye
230
James-Lange theory
A theory of emotion that proposes that physical sensations lead to subjective feelings
231
Just-world belief
The assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
232
Language
A system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals
233
Latent inhibition
The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar
234
Latent learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement
235
Learned helplessness
A state in which experiencing random or uncontrolled consequences leads to feelings of helplessness and possible depression
236
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience
237
Lens
The clear structure behind the pupil that bends light toward the retina
238
Leptin
A hormone secreted by fat cells that helps the body maintain an appropriate level of stored fat
239
Levels of processing theory
The depths (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predict its ease of retrieval
240
Locus of control
A cognitive expectancy featured in social-cognitive learning theories of personality about the source of individual outcomes; an external locus of control sees outcomes as resulting from luck or chance, while an internal locus of control sees outcomes as the result of individual effort
241
Long-term memory
The final stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that is the location of permanent memories
242
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
The enhancement of communication between two neurons resulting from their synchronous activation
243
Longitudinal study
An experimental design for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals at intervals over a long period of time
244
Low-balling
Making further requests of a person who has already committed to a course of action
245
Lucid dreaming
A conscious awareness of dreaming accompanied by the ability to control the content of the dream
246
Lymphocyte
White blood cells that are products of the immune system
247
Major depressive disorder (MDD)
A disorder characterized by lengthy periods of depressed mood, loss of pleasure in normal activities, disturbances in sleep and appetite, difficulty concentrating, feelings of hopelessness, and possible thoughts of suicide
248
Major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern
A mood disorder in which depression occurs regularly at the same time each year, usually during the winter months; formerly known as seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
249
Mania
A period of unrealistically elevated mood
250
Mean
The numerical average of a set of scores
251
Median
The halfway mark in a set of data, with half of the scores above it and half below
252
Meditation
A voluntary alteration of consciousness characterized by positive emotion and absence of thought
253
Medulla
The brainstem structure that lies just above the spinal cord
254
Memory
The ability to retain knowledge
255
Menopause
The complete cessation of a woman's menstrual cycles
256
Mere exposure effect
A situation in which repeated exposure increases liking
257
Meta-analysis
A statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic
258
Method of successive approximations
A method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur; also known as shaping
259
Midbrain
The part of the brainstem that lies between the pons and the cerebral hemispheres
260
Migration
Movement to a new location
261
Mind
The brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior
262
Mixed longitudinal design
A method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies
263
Mnemonics
Memory aids that link new info to well-known info
264
Mode
The most frequently occurring score in a set of data
265
Monocular cues
A depth cue that requires the use of only one eye
266
Morpheme
The smallest component of speech that carries meaning
267
Motivated forgetting
Failure to retrieve negative memories
268
Motivation
A process that arouses, maintains, and guides behavior toward a goal
269
Mutation
An error that occurs when DNA is replicated
270
Myelin
The insulating material covering some axons
271
Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD)
A disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and low empathy
272
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by the intrusion of rapid eye movement phenomena into waking
273
Natural sciences
Sciences that study the physical and biological events that occur in nature
274
Natural selection
The process by which survival and reproduction pressures act to change the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations
275
Naturalistic observation
An in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting
276
Nature
The contributions of heredity to our physical structure and behaviors in development
277
Near-death experiences
An altered state of consciousness reported by people who were close to death because of cardiac or other medical problems that features out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end-of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of calmness
278
Negative punishment
A method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs
279
Negative reinforcement
A method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence
280
Neo-Freudian
A theorist who attempted to update and modify Sigmund Freud's original theory of personality
281
Neurofeedback
A type of biofeedback used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and seizures by teaching the client to keep measures of rain activity within a certain range
282
Neuron
A cell of the nervous system that is specialized to send and receive neural messages
283
Neuroticism
A Big Five personality trait characterized by anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsivity, and vulnerability
284
Neurotransmitter
A chemical messenger that communicates across a synapse
285
Non-rapid eye movement (N-REM)
The components of sleep characterized by theta and delta wave activity, as recorded by electroencephalogram, and deep physical relaxation
286
Nonassociative learning
Learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli
287
Nondeclarative memory
An unconsciously and effortlessly retrieved memory that is difficult to verbalize, such as a memory for classical conditioning, procedural learning, and priming; also known as implicit memory
288
Nucleus accumbens
A subcortical structure that participates in reward and addiction
289
Null hypothesis
A hypothesis stating the default position that there is no real difference between two measures
290
Nuture
The contributions of environmental factors and experience to our physical structure and behaviors
291
Obedience
Compliance with a request from an authority figure
292
Object permanence
The ability to form mental representations of objects that are no longer present
293
Objectivity
The practice of basing conclusions on facts without the influence of personal emotion and bias
294
Observational learning
Learning that occurs when one organism watches the actions of another organism; also known as social learning or modeling
295
Obsession
An intrusive, distressing thought
296
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
A disorder associated with intrusive obsessions and compulsions
297
Occipital lobe
The lobe of the cerebral cortex located at the back of the brain; location of the primary visual cortex
298
Olfaction
The sense of smell
299
Olfactory bulbs
One of two structures below the frontal lobes of the brain that recieve input from the olfactory receptors in the nose
300
Olfactory nerve
A nerve carrying olfactory information from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulbs
301
Openess
A Big Five personality trait characterized by an appreciation for fantasy, feelings, actions, ideas, values, and aesthetics
302
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes
303
Operationalization
Defining variables in ways that allow them to be measured
304
Opponent process theory
A theory of color vision that suggests we have a red-green color channel and a blue-yellow color channel in which activation of one color in each pair inhibits the other color
305
Optic nerve
The nerve exiting the retina of the eye
306
Optic tracts
Nerve pathways traveling from the optic chiasm to the thalamus, hypothalamus, and midbrain
307
Optimism
Thinking positively about the future
308
Orbitofrontal cortex
A part of the prefrontal cortex located right behind the eyes that participates in impulse control
309
Organ of Corti
A structure located on the basilar membrane that contains auditory receptors
310
Panic attack
The experience of intense fear and autonomic arousal in the absence of a real threat
311
Panic disorder
A disorder characterized by repeated panic attacks and fear of future attacks
312
Papillae
Small bumps on the tongue that contain taste buds
313
Parasympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system associated with rest, repair, and energy storage
314
Parietal lobe
The lobe of the cerebral cortex that lies at the top of the head between the frontal and the occipital lobe; location of the primary somatosensory cortex
315
Partial reinforcement
The reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others
316
Partial reinforcement effect in extinction
The more rapid extinction observed following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement
317
Peer review
The process of having other experts examine research prior to its publication
318
Perception
The process of interpreting sensory information
319
Peripheral nervous system
The nerves exiting the central nervous system that carry sensory and motor information to and from the rest of the body
320
Person-centered therapy
A humanistic therapy approach developed by Carl Rogers to help clients achieve congruence, or an alignment of the real and ideal selves
321
Personality
An individual's characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving
322
Personality disorder
A disorder characterized by impairments in identity in personality traits, and in establishment of empathy or intimacy
323
Personality inventory
An objective test, often using numbered scales or multiple choice, used to assess peronality
324
Persuasion
A change in attitude in response to information provided by another person
325
Phenotype
An observable characteristic
326
Phonemes
A speech sound
327
Pons
A part of the brainstem located between the medulla and the midbrain
328
Population
The entire group from which a sample is taken
329
Positive psychology
An approach to psychology that emphasizes normal behavior and human strengths
330
Positive punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus
331
Postconventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to personal standards and reason
332
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
A disorder caused by the experience of trauma, which leads to flashbacks, dreams, hypervigilance, and avoidance of stimuli associated with the traumatic event
333
Preconventional morality
Lawrence Kohlberg's stage at which moral choices are made according to expectations of reward or punishment
334
Prefrontal cortex
The most forward part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex
335
Prejudice
A prejudgment, usually negative, or another person on the basis of membership in a group
336
Preoperational stage
Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at the age of 2 years and ending at the age of 6 years
337
Priming
A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus
338
Problem
A situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state by obstacles
339
Problem solving
The use of information to meet a specific goal
340
Problem-focused coping
A response to stress designed to address specific problems by finding solutions
341
Procedural memory
A nondeclarative or implicit memory for how to carry out skilled movement
342
Projective tests
A test of personality based on Freudian theory that provides an ambiguous stimulus onto which test takers "project" their personality
343
Prototype
A representation of a category formed by averaging all members of the category
344
Psychiatrist
A medical doctor who specializes in psychiatry and can use medical procedures, such as the prescribing of medication, to treat psychological disorders
345
Psychoactive drugs
Any drug with the capability of altering a person's state of consciousness
346
Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's treatment approach based on his psychodynamic theory
347
Psychodynamic
A theory put forward by Sigmund Freud in which psychic energy moves among the compartments of the personality : Id, ego, and superego
348
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior, mental processes, and brain functions
349
Psychophysics
The study of relationships between the physical qualities of stimuli and the subjective responses they produce
350
Psychosexual stage
A stage in Sigmund Freud's theory of the developing personality
351
Psychosurgery
The attempt to improve symptoms of psychological disorders through operating on the brain
352
Psychotherapist
A licensed professional who provides psychotherapy
353
Psychotherapy
A treatment designed to improve symptoms of psychological disorder through conversation between the therapist and the patient or client
354
Puberty
A period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity
355
Punishment
A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior
356
Pupil
An opening formed by the iris
357
Random assignment
The procedure in which each participant has an equal change of being place in any group in an experiment
358
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
The component of sleep characterized by waveforms resembling waking, as measured by electroencephalogram, accompanied by rapid motion of the eyes, muscular paralysis, and sympathetic nervous system activation
359
Receptor
A special channel in the membrane of a neuron that interacts with neurotransmitters released by other neurons
360
Recessive
A feature of an allele that produces only a phenotype in the homozygous condition
361
Reciprocal altruism
Help that you provide for another person when you expect the person to return the favor in the future
362
Reciprocal determinism
A social-cognitive learning theory of personality that features the mutual influence of the person and that of the situation on each other
363
Recognition heurisitc
A rule of thumb in which a higher value in space on the more easily recognized alternative
364
Reconstruction
Rebuilding a memory in which a higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alerternative
365
Reflex
An inevitable, involuntary response to stimuli
366
Rehearsal
Repetition of information
367
Relatedness
The probability that two people share the same allele from a common ancestor
368
Relationship-focused coping
A response to stress designed to maintain and protect social relationships
369
Reliability
The consistency of a measure, including test-retest, interrater, intermethod, and internal consistency
370
Replication
Repeating an experiment and producing the same results
371
Representativeness heuristic
A rule of thumb in which stimuli similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely that stimuli that are dissimilar to a prototype
372
Resilience
The ability to adapt to life's challenges in positive ways
373
Resistance
A psychoanalytic technique in which the patient's reluctance to accept the interpretations of the therapist indicate that the interpretations are correct
374
Resistance
The second stage of general adaption syndrome (GAS), characterized by coping with ongoing stress
375
Resting potential
The measure of the electrical charge across a neural membrane when the neuron is not processing information
376
Restless legs syndrome (RLS)
A disorder characterized by the involuntary movement of an extremity, usually one leg
377
Reticular formation
A collection of structures located along the midline of the brainstem that participate in mood, arousal, and sleep
378
Retina
Layers of visual processing cells in the back of the eye
379
Retinal disparity
The difference between the images projected onto each eye
380
Retrieval
The recovery of stored information
381
Reuptake
A process in which molecules of neurotransmitter in the synaptic gap are returned to the axon terminal from which they were released
382
Rods
A photoreceptor specialized to detect dim light
383
Sample
A subset of a population being studied
384
Satiety
A sense of feeling full and not requiring further food
385
Schater-Singer two-factor theory
A theory of emotion in which general arousal leads to assessment, which in turn leads to subjective feelings
386
Schema
A set of expectations about objects and situation
387
Schizophrenia
A disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized though and speech, disorders of movement, restricted affect, and avolition or asociality
388
Science
A method for learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation
389
Secondary sex characteristics
Physical changes occuring at puberty associated with sexual maturity
390
Secure attachment
A pattern of infant-caregiver bonding in which children explore confidently and return to the parent or caregiver for reassurance
391
Seizures
An abnormal level of brain activation with a sudden onset
392
Self
Patterns of thought, feelings, and actions that we perceive in our own minds
393
Self-actualization
A state of having fulfilled your potential
394
Self-awareness
The special understanding of the self as distinct from other stimuli
395
Self-concept
People's description of their own characteristics
396
Self-esteem
A judgement of the value of the self
397
Self-schema
A cognitive organization that helps us think about the self and process self-relevant information
398
Self-serving bias
Attributing success to dispositional factors while attributing failure to situational favtors
399
Semantic memory
A general knowledge memory
400
Sensation
The process of detecting environmental stimuli or stimuli arising from the body
401
Sensitization
An increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus
402
Sensorimotor stage
Jean Piaget's stage of development beginning at birth and ending at the age of 2 years and characterized by exploration of the environment
403
Sensory adaption
The tendency to pay less attention to a nonchanging source of stimulation
404
Sensory memory
The first stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time
405
Signal detection
The analysis of sensory and decision-making processes in the detection of faint, uncertain stimuli
406
Situational attribution
A judgment assigning the cause of a person's behavior to the environment
407
Sleep
A normal state of consciousness characterized by reduced awareness of external stimuli
408
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder in which the person stops breathing while asleep
409
Sleep terror
A sleep disorder occurring in non-rapid eye movement sleep in which the sleeper wakes suddenly in great distress but without experiencing the imagery of a nightmare
410
Social anxiety disorder
A disorder characterized by an unrealistic fear of being scrutinized and criticized by others
411
Social facilitation
A situation in which the presence of other people changes performance
412
Social loafing
Reduced motivation and effort shown by individuals working in a group
413
Social norms
Usually unwritten or unspoken rules for behavior in social settings
414
Social-cognitive learning theory
A theory of personality that features cognition and learning, especially from the social environment, as important sources of individual differences in personality
415
Somatic nervous system
The part of the peripheral nervous system that brings sensory information to the central nervous system and transmits commands to the muscles
416
Somatic smptom disorder
A disorder that is diagnosed when people are unusually concerned and preoccupied with chronic somatic symptoms
417
Somatosensation
The body senses, including body position, touch, skin temperature, and pain
418
Somatovisceral afference model of emotion (SAME)
A model of emotion in which a range of physical sensations from precise to general requires varying degrees of cognitive processing prior to subjective feelings
419
Specific phobia
Fears of objects other that those associated with agoraphobia or social anxiety disorder
420
Spinal cord
A long cylinder of neural tissue extending from the medulla of the brain down to the middle of the back, part of the central nervous system
421
Spontaneous recovery
During extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses (CRs) after periods of rest
422
Spreading activation model
A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences
423
Standard deviation
A measure of how tightly clustered around the mean of a group of scores
424
Statistical significance
A standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance
425
Stereotype
A simplified set of traits associated with membership in a group or category
426
Stimulants
Any drug that increases the activity of the nervous system
427
Storage
The retention of information
428
Stress
An unpleasant emotional state that results from the perception of danger
429
Stressor
A stimulus that serves as a source of stress
430
Structuralism
An approach in which the mind is broken into the smallest elements of mental experience
431
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
A sleep disorder in which an otherwise healthy infant dies while asleep
432
Superego
The component of Sigmund Freud's personality theory that internalizes society's rules for right and wrong, or the conscience
433
Survey
A descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions
434
Sympathetic adrenal-medullary (SAM) system
A circuit that responds to perceived stressors by initiating the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream
435
Sympathetic nervous sytem
The division of the autonomic nervous system that coordinates arousal
436
Synapse
A point of communication between two neurons
437
Systemic desensitization
A type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear
438
Tardive dyskenesia
A movement syndrome that results from the use of medications used to treat symptoms of schizophrenia
439
Taste buds
A structure found in papillae that contains taste receptor cells
440
Temperament
A child's pattern of mood, activity, or emotional responsiveness linked to later personality
441
Temporal lobe
The lobe of the cerebral cortex that curves around the side of each hemisphere; location of the primary auditory cortex
442
Teratogen
A chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus
443
Testosterone
A male hormone
444
Thalamus
A subcortical structure involved with the processing of sensory information, states of arousal, and learning and memory
445
Theory
A set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena
446
Theory of mind (TOM)
The understanding that other have thoughts that are different from one;s own
447
Theta wave
A waveform of four to seven cycles pers second recorded by electroencephalogram (EEG) that is characteristic of lighter stages of non-rapid eye movement (N-REM) sleep
448
Third variable
A variable that is responsible for a correlation observed between two other variables of interest
449
Token economy
An application of operant conditioning in which tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers are used to increase the frequency of desirable behaviors
450
Tolerance
The need to administer greater quantities of a drug to achieve the same subjective effect
451
Top-down processing
A perceptual process in which memory and other cognitive processes are required for interpreting incoming sensory information
452
Trait
A stable personality characteristic
453
Transduction
The translation of incoming sensory information into neural signals
454
Transference
A psychoanalytic technique in which the therapist uses the responses of the patient to the therapist to understand the patient's approach to authority figures in general
455
Trichromatic theory
A theory of color vision based on the existence of different types of cones for detection of short, medium, and long wavelengths
456
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience
457
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that elicits a response without a prior experience
458
Unconscious mind
The part of mental activity that cannot be voluntarily retrieved
459
Validity
A quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (i.e., the measure evaluates the concept that it was designed to do)
460
Variable
A factor that has a range of values
461
Variable interval (VI) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response following a varying period is reinforced
462
Variable ratio (VR) schedule
A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors
463
Vegetative state (VS)
An abnormal state following brain injury featuring wakefulness without consciousness
464
Vestibular system
The system in the inner ear that provides information about body position and movement
465
Vision
The sense that allows us to process reflected light
466
Waking
A normal state of consciousness characterized by alertness and awareness of external stimuli
467
Withdrawal
Physical responses to the removal of some habitually administered drugs
468
Working memory
An extension of the concept of short-term memory that includes the active manipulation of multiple types of information
469
Yerkes-Dodson law
A description of the relationships among tasks complexity, arousal, and performance
470
Zygote
The term used to describe a developing organism immediately following conception until the embryo stage, or the first 2 week following conception in humans
