Hitaua Arahanga-Doyle Flashcards
1
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Qualitative Research
A
Looks for meaning in the world around us using non-numeric data.
2
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Characteristics of Qualitative Research
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- Quotes or images
- Capturing the original quality of the data
- Non-numeric
-Primarily involves the ‘human experience’
3
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What drives research?
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Distinguishing qualitative and quantitative methods (Ontology, Epistemology, Data gathering and analysis). We will compare quantitative research (experimentation) and qualitative research (exploration).
4
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Ontology
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Views on human reality
5
Q
Ontology in quantitative research
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Strong realism - there is one ‘true’ reality (independent of perception)
6
Q
Ontology in qualitative research
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Strong relativism - people’s realities differ (relative to perception).
The view that our knowledge of reality is never a simple reflection of the way the world actually is, but it is created and sustained through subjective social processes.
7
Q
Epistemology
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What we know and how we know it
8
Q
Epistemology in quantitative research
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Positivism - knowledge and meaning are waiting to be discovered and are then considered ‘true’ until disproven (through research).
9
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Epistemology in qualitative research
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Social constructionism - knowledge and meaning is being generated bu attempts to explain the human world (including research).
10
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Data gathering and analysis in quantitative research
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Mostly asking closed questions of large samples to test very specific hypotheses.
11
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Data gathering and analysis in qualitative research
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Mostly asking open-ended questions with specific groups of people to explore their experiences.
12
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Five key elements of generating a research question
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- State the goal
- define the population sample
- define the setting
- identify the primary topic
- Be precise enough to be feasible
13
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Closed questions
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Imply fixed answer choices: e.g Do you want to be a psychologist? (Yes, No, Maybe)
14
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Open-ended questions
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Invite expansion: e.g. What does your ideal career look like?
15
Q
What is a theme
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A patterned response or meaning within the data set.
16
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Research interviews
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How we communicate verbally. Question phrasing sets up the kind of answers you invite.
17
Q
Structured research interviews
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Closed questions (or scoring answers to open-ended ones). Very fixed topic and fixed order of questions. Very clear roles - like a questionnaire being read. Expansion is allowed only if pre-defined (=branching).
Specific questions –> fixed answers –> numerical data (quantitative). Database
18
Q
Semi-structured research interviews
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Open-ended questions (or probing following closed questions). Very open around a topic and question order can vary. Almost equal roles - like seeking the view of an expert. Expansion is encouraged (on topic).
Open-ended questions –> subjective answers –> verbal data (qualitative). Transcription
19
Q
Unstructured research interview
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Just having a research topic in mind. Ideal for research development and pilot studies.
20
Q
Focus Groups (the basics)
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Applying interview techniques to groups. A focus group is an informal discussion among selected individuals about specific topics.
21
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Focus Group Pros
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Pre-existing friends can talk about shared experiences.
Unknown participants can provide a deeper explanation.
A good interviewer steers the balance of talking.
Close to a certain type of natural group interaction.
22
Q
Focus group Cons
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Pre-existing friends can lead to assumptions and tensions.
Unknown participants forming new relationships.
Who dominates the discussion?
Too many people?
Not a natural environment (and talking over each other).
23
Q
Core ethical principles of psychological research
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- Cultural sensitivity
- Informed consent
- Protection from harm
- Confidentiality
24
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Cultural sensitivity
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Predominantly a realist ontology - assume there is one true reality independent of perception.
Ethical research challenges ethnocentrism.
Ideally allows participants to identify their ethnicities.
Qualitative researchers are encouraged to reflect on their own ethnicities (reflexivity).
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Informed consent
Two components :
Informing - exactly what is involved.
Getting consent - signed consent form, proxy (signing on behalf of someone not 'competent'), passive consent (not refusing; e.g. child participants).
In qualitative research you might also have to; seek permission to record the interview or focus group, explain how the data will be used = quotes, provide the questions.
26
Deception and protection from harm
Deception is only used when there are no alternatives.
Never with children
Never in qualitative research.
Deception is important in experimental research where awareness reduces the effect (e.g. prejudice).
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Debriefing
To disclose any deception. To offer information about sources of help when relevant.
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Confidentiality
Only researchers and participants shave access to data. Removal of identifiers from transcripts (names, places etc.)
29
What is photo elicitation?
Photo as interview prompts.
Three primary uses of photos within research;
1. Only in the interview
2. In an interview and academic publications
3. Interview, publications and public displays
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Three levels of participant involvement in photo elicitation
1. Researcher-led = showing pre-selected photos.
2. Participant-led = asking participants to take photos (take photos and bring them in themselves).
3. Participatory = participants leading the study
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Photo elicitation interviews
Involve self-presentation. Taking, presenting, and talking about a photo changes the focus of an interview
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Ethics of photo elicitation
1. Use in interviews
2. Use in publications or exhibitions. Some journals only allow photos without people, others used edited photos (hiding identity).
3. Use in public exhibitions or on websites - photovoice.
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Media
Indirect communication of information.
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Is media elicitation like photo elicitation?
Yes.
Participant interviews about their use or perceptions of media stimuli. Direct analysis of the media stimuli by the research.
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Three primary types of media elicitation studies:
1. Researcher-led media elicitation
2. Participant-led
3. Primary media analysis
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Researcher-led media elicitation
Media stimuli pre-selected by researchers. Can be real media or mock media.
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Participant-led media elicitation
Can be spontaneously mentioned or requested. Media gathered by participants - can be done in real-time.
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Primary media analysis
No participants, just media
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Mixed methods
Research in which the investigator collects and analyses data integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study.
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Mixed methods four key factors
1. Implementation
2. Priority
3. Integration
4. Theoretical perspective
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Implementation
The order of data collection. No definite order (sequential or concurrent).
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Priority
The priority given to either the qualitative data or the quantitative data. It may be equally shared. Where the priority is focused will significantly impact the analysis and interpretation of the results.
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Integration
The stage within the research process in which the qualitative and quantitative data are integrated.
When generating a research question.
Data collection.
Data analysis.
Interpretation phase (most common)
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Theoretical perspective
Explicit /implicit goal or desired outcome of the research. Whether the research strives for explicit transformational change and is clearly stated, or whether these goals are implicit.
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Mixed method design - Six primary types of design
1. Sequential explanatory
2. Sequential exploratory
3. Sequential transformative
4. Concurrent triangulation
5. Concurrent nested
6. Concurrent transformative
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Cross-sectional research
A research design in which data are compared at a single point in time. A snapshot.
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Strengths of Cross-Sectional research
Relatively quick and inexpensive to conduct.
Valuable for generating hypotheses.
Many findings can be used to create an in-depth research study.
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Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional research
Difficult to make a causal inference.
Associations identified might be difficult to interpret.
Unable to investigate the temporal relation between variables.
Not good for studying rare phenomena.
Common assessment variance.
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Longitudinal research
The study of a variable or group of variables in the same cases or participants over a period of time, sometimes several years.
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Longitudinal research Pros
Causal inference.
Temporal relationship between variables is generally clear.
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Longitudinal research Cons
Participant attrition.
Time means that other variables might contaminate the results.
Temporal erosion for specific research.
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Basic Research
Research conducted to obtain greater understanding of a phenomenon, explore a theory, or advance knowledge, with no consideration of any direct practical application.
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Applied research
Studies conducted to solve real-world problems, as opposed to studies that are carried out to develop a theory or to extend basic knowledge.
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Social Psychology theory - Belonging hypothesis
Core criteria for belonging;
1. Frequent, pleasurable interactions with a few other people
2. Interactions take place in a stable and enduring framework with mutual concern for each other's welfare.
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Social Psychology - basic definition
Study of how thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people.
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Explanations of psychology
Intergroup dynamics need to be considered more so than they already are. Produced a spectrum of interaction between people. The idea that we interact with each other with no influence of group dynamics.
Interpersonal <-------> Intergroup
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Minimal Group Paradigm
A scientific attempt to create an 'empty environment' where researchers could then systematically add variables that would elicit discrimination.
Categorise participants into ingroup and outgroups that have no context or meaning.
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Social Norms
Socially determined consensual standards that indicate;
What behaviors are considered typical in a given context and what behaviors are considered proper in the context.
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Descriptive Norms
What behaviors are considered typical in the given context.
How people typically should feel, act, and/or think.
How most people actually behave.
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Abrams, Margues, Brown & Henson (2000)
Participants took on the role of an employer at an insurance company.
Evaluated seven employees at the business on:
Competence
Fit at the company
Friendliness
Future success prospects
Appropriate pay range
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Abrams, Margues, Brown & Henson (2000) - Information about the employees
All seven had similar intellegence , optimism, politeness, and competence scores.
1 employee - significant deviated lower than the normative scores (deviant low).
5 employees - had similar 'normative' scores on a range of employment skills, e.g. social dominance (normative group).
1 employee - significant deviated higher than the normative scores (deviant high).
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Dynamic norms
Awareness of changing norms.
Information about how other peoples behaviour is changing over time.
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Rohrer et al. (1954)
Two groups of participants
1. trained with a light that moved 8 inches
2. trained with a light that moved 2 inches
Participants then placed in pairs:
one from each group
placed into a room with a light that didn't move.
Whos norms became the norm?
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Self-construal
How you think of yourself (self perception)
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Independent cultures
Internal attributes most salient.
Self-concept separate from the group.
Personal goals will take priority over group goals.
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Interdependent cultures
Social role most salient.
Self-concept is part of the group.
Group goals take priority
Relationships are crucial.
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The point of cultural psychology
Peoples repeated exposure to their culture, particularly exposure to the fundamental norms, values, and behaviours, fundamentally changes people's cognition, motivations and behaviours from that culture.
Each persons psychological processes and structures are organised through the active effort to coordinate his or her behaviours with the pertinent cultural systems of practises and public meanings.
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Cultural Psychology - APA Definition
1. An extension of general psychology concerned with psychological processes that are inherently organised by culture.
2. There is focus on explaining how human psychological functions (i.e. behaviour, emotions, and cognition) are culturally influenced through various forms of relations between people and their cultural contexts.
3. An interdisciplinary field that relates most closely to cultural, social, developmental, and cognitive issues.
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Wu et al. (2016)
Who would you choose to save from a burning house? Your mother or your spouse?
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Cultural Cycle - Four I's
Ideas, Institutions, Interactions, Individual
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Cultural Cycle - Ideas
Big pervasive cultural ideas. E.g. what is good? what is moral?
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Cultural Cycle - Institutions
Institutions that reflect and promote the culture. e.g. legal system, government, the media.
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Cultural Cycle - Interactions
Daily experiences personalizing. E.g. work, school.
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Cultural Cycle - Individual
Psychological structures and processes. e.g. the self, and cognition.
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How are cultures sustained?
Cumulative Cultural Evolution.
Beneficial modifications are accumulated over time.
- Imitation
- Emulation
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Nagell et al. (1993)
Children and chimps observe human model using a rakelike tool to get a desired object (food/toy).
Teeth up = most effective
Teeth down = less effective
Chimps emulated (more commonly used more effective technique).
Children imitated (children in teeth down continued to use less effective method).
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Imative Learning
Learner precisely copies a 'model'.
The learner internalises the models goals, intensions and behavioural strategies.
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Emulative learning
Learner tries to figure out things for themselves.
Learner focuses on environmental events, e.g. how the use of an object could potentially cause changes in the state of the environment.
Doesn't focus on others intentions.
79
Framed line test
Kitayama, Duffy, Kawamura & Larsen (2003).
- Expand on perceiving the context.
- Framed Line Test (FLT) asks participants to reconstruct the context.
- Field independence (Analytical) vs. Field Dependence (Holistic)
80
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Greenfield (2000)
- Provides a methodology for comparing cultures
- Cultural differences are produced by dominant cultural social practices/norms which reinforce measurable psychological phenomena.
81
Cultural Psychology
Culture is not seen as outside the individual, but as inside the self.
Culture is a way and process of knowing, of construing the world and others.
Culture and behavior, culture and the mind are indistinguishable.
Doesn't determine behavior, but it makes particularily behavior and ways of thinking more likely to occur.
Co-construction of meaning.
82
Existential universal
If the psychological process is in principle available in different cultures but it occurs in different ways or frequency then it is existential. The process is present but it is used in different ways and achieve different goals (qualitatively distinct).
Example: Success/failure as source of motivation.
83
Functional universal
If the psychological process is present and used in the same way across cultures, then it is functional. However, these are processes that are more accessible to people from some cultures more than others.
Example: Impact of social belonging on resilience
84
Decision Tree for cultural Universals
is it cognitively available?
no --> Non Universal
yes -->
Is the use the same?
no --> Existential universal
yes -->
Is it accessible in the same way?
no --> Functional univesal
yes --> Accessibility Universal
85
Accessibility universal
The psychological process exists across all cultures, solves the same problems and is accessible to people from all cultures in the same way and frequency.
Example: mere exposure effect: tendancy to experience positive affect towards familiar objects compared to unfamiliar objects.
86
Non-universal
if the psychological process doesn't exist in all cultures then it isn't universal. It is a non-universal and is a cultural invention.
Example: abacus reasoning
87
Qualitative research - Indigenous Psychology
Indigenous psychology involves the human experience distinctly within a culture.
88
Self-Enhancement
The tendency to dwell on and elaborate positive information about one's weaknesses.
Strongly related to self-esteem.
Common Western Perception of Positive Self-Regard.
89
Etic Research
Research in which a classification system is imposed on what is being studied. The classification or criteria is external to what is being studied.
90
Emic Research
Research in which the classification system is discovered within, rather than imposed.
91
Etic Research within Cultural Psychology
Applying theorizing and methodologies onto and across cultures to discover similarities and differences across psychological constructs.
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Emic Research within Cultural Psychology
Conducting research that works within a culture to discover indigenous psychological constructs.
Through the eyes of the subjects.
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Indigenous Psychology
The study of human behavior and mental processes within a cultural context that relies on values, concepts, belief systems, methodologies, and other resources indigenous to the specific ethnic or cultural group under investigation.
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What are indigenous psychologies
Five core elements
Study of human behaviour or the mind where:
1. The knowledge systems and meanings are native to the specific ethnic or cultural group under investigation.
2. These knowledge systems form the basis of the research.
3. Research is conducted bottom-up and from within.
4. Designed for its people.
5. Methodological diverse.
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How did they emerge?
A movement in reaction to Western-oriented (largely American) psychology.
American psychology is an indigenous psychology.
Awaken identity and national consciousness
Indigenous psychologies evolved into a worldwide reaction against the unjustified claims of university.
96
Psychological phenomena in Maori context
Colonisation
Urbanisation
Dual/mixed ethnicity
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Kaupapa Maori
Maori research, it's principles, processes and applications.
98
Kaupapa Maori research
-Gives full recognition to Maori cultural values and systems.
-is a strategic position that challenges dominant Pakeha constructions of research.
-Determines the assumptions, values, key ideas, and priorities of research
-ensures that Maori maintain conceptual, methodological, and interpretive control over research.
-Is a philosophy that guides Maori research and ensures that Maori protocol will be followed during research processes.
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Kaupapa Maori Foundations
Recognising, challenging and transforming oppressive colonial structures (critical theory).
Promote and advance Te Ao Maori using our own knowledge, values, and processes as accepted in their own right (native theory).
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Kaupapa Maori Principles
1. Tino rangatiratanga
2. Social justice
3. Maori world view
4. Te reo maori
5. Whanau
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He Awa Whiria Model
Aim to blend indigenous and Western bodies of knowledge in a way that is more powerful than other individual stream.
