HistoryofMedicine2

Question 1

Who was Imhotep?

Answer 1

First healer that we know of. He was a ‘vizier’ (Prime minister to Pharoah Djozer). A polymath: healer; high priest, astrologer, architect.

Question 2

Egyptian papyri illustrated what?

Answer 2

surgical instruments from ca 200BCE: Hooks, forceps, and probes.

Question 3

what was George Ebers Papyrus composed of?

Answer 3

1550 BCE. Earliest Medical Text (that we know of).
Covers many diseases and how to treat them. Also listed a variety of different medications and how to prepare them. Sometimes the medicine probably worked. Other times, probably not.

Question 4

What is the term Ayurveda mean?

Answer 4

ayus: “life,” “life principle,” or “long life” and
veda: a system of knowledge.
so “ayurveda” is (roughly) the “knowledge of life,” “knowledge of long life,” or perhaps the “science of life.”

Question 5

Roots of Ayurveda ancient system?

Answer 5

arose in India in remote antiquity

traditionally, originated with a revelation from Lord Brahma. It is still practiced today in India, Sri Lanka

Question 6

Charaka samhita consisted of what?

Answer 6

Charaka means “wandering religious student”. Samhita=encyclopedia or compilation—probably of many writers. Includes a lot of therapeutic medicine and treatments by drugs and modification by drugs and altering lifestyle/diet. It describes over 600 animal, plant, and mineral drugs along with formulas for medicine. Contains lots of wisdom that sounds contemporary. “A
physician who fails to enter the body without the lantern of knowledge and understanding can never
treat disease,” and many others.first to describe digestion, metabolism and immunity, before Europeans
theorized body functions are result of three dosha or principles:
movement (vata),
transformation (pitta)
lubrication and stability (kapha).
doshas sometimes called “humors,” similar to the Greek tradition, namely, bile, phlegm and wind
illness results from loss of balance among the three dosha.

Question 7

What are the four qualities of good ayurvedic medicine?

Answer 7

theoretical knowledge,
clarity of reasoning,
wide clinical experience,
personal skill. (Similar to todays standards)

Question 8

What are the two types of practitioners in ayurvedic medicine?

Answer 8

Practitioners in two classes: salya-cikitsakas (surgeons) and kaya-cikitsakas (physicians)
Ayurvedic surgery was very adept (e.g. did rhinoplasty, cataracts, C-section, amputations with great success!)

Question 9

List the 8 branches of Ayurveda

Answer 9

Internal medicine
Surgery 
Ears, eyes, nose and throat 
Pediatrics 
Toxicology 
Purification of the genetic organs 
Health and Longevity 
Spiritual Healing/Psychiatry

Question 10

Roots of Traditional Chinese medicine?

Answer 10

Had obscure origins because of Emperor Shih Huang-ti,“Yellow Emperor” destroyed everything that came before his rule of Chinese Unification. No
apparent outside influences though.

Question 11

What are the core beliefs of Chinese medicine?

Answer 11

Unity of nature, yin-yang dualism & balance; theory of 5 phases;theory of systematic correspondences.

Question 12

key concepts of Chinese medicine

Answer 12

Their approach to anatomy seems peculiar to westerners. “Anatomy” was based on the dynamic interplay, not actual body parts. Certain organs were described based on their perceived function. Not true structure (i.e. “triple warmer”). Imbalance of Yin and Yang caused disease. Treatment involved curing the spirit, living in harmony with the universe. Also required dietary management, acupuncture, pharmacotherapy, and treatment of bowel, viscera, blood, and breath. Considerable emphasis on sphygmology, Rejected venisection

Question 13

What is Yin in the Yin and Yang balance?

Answer 13

dark element, passive, dark, feminine, downward-seeking, and corresponds to the night
often symbolized by water and earth.
Yin and yang are complementary opposites but not absolutes; kept in balance for health, there is constant fluctuation.

Question 14

What is Yang in the Yin and Yang balance?

Answer 14

bright element, active, light, masculine, upward-seeking and corresponds to the day
symbolized by fire and wind.
Yin and yang are complementary opposites but not absolutes; kept in balance for health, there is constant fluctuation.

Question 15

what is Sphygmology?

Answer 15

The Chinese did NOT believe in venisection. Instead they studied the pulse. Traditional practitioners studied 120 different variations of the pulse.

Question 16

Key components of Acupuncture?

Answer 16

Traditional in origin. There are two types Traditional and With Moxa. Belief there are 12 meridians and 365 acupuncture points. Believes it purges energy, restores yin and yang harmony. Often effective based on empiric evidence. Even used for anesthesia.

Question 17

What is Moxa?

Answer 17

Mixture of mugwort or wormwood. It warms regions and acupuncture points, said to stimulate circulation of the life force (“chi” or “qi”). Sometimes burned on acupuncture needle, sometimes placed directly on the skin.

Question 18

what did the book Mo-Ching consist of?

Answer 18

This is the pulse classic. The book that covered the 120 different variations of the pulse.

Question 19

What did the book Nei-Ching consist of?

Answer 19

The Bible of Chinese Medicine. Much of Chinese medicine was based on this book, called “The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor”. Emperor wrote with physician Qi Bo.( Well Not Really)

Question 20

What was The Golden Mirror?

Answer 20

(book): Compilation of Han Dynasty Writings from 200BCE-230 CE.

Question 21

Agents adopted into Western medicine from Materia Medica (Chinese) AKA Great Pharmocopeia include?

Answer 21

rhubarb - diarrhea
iron - anemia
Cannabis sativa (Indian hemp) - sedation
chaulmoogra oil - leprosy
Ephedra vulgaris (mahuang) – asthma
Rauwolfia – high blood pressure (reserpine)
ginseng

Question 22

What is Susrut Samhita?

Answer 22

Book of Ayuvedic Medicine. Compiled by Susrut about surgery along with Charaka Samhita, it recognizes and classifies up to 1200 diseases including “fevers of many kinds”, phtisis (TB), and skin rashes such as small pox, etc.

Question 23

What is Susrata?

Answer 23

Study anatomy. Since the Hindu religion prohibited the cutting of the body (meaning cadavers could not be dissected.) So internal anatomy was sketchy, but Susruta found a loop-hole. He suggested putting the body into the river for 7 days then removing remaining tissue with a feather to examine the structures-no cutting necessary.

Question 24

what is Agnivesh Tantra?

Answer 24

Classic text of Indian Medicine.

Question 25

How did the medieval social and political climate altered the practice of healing?

Answer 25

During this Early Middle Ages, cities became much smaller. People moved into rural areas and education and medical learning regressed. Galenism (and all his errors) arose. Medicine was mostly rural and consisted of herbalists and quacksalvers and other practitioners that learned from leech books. People went to monastaries to learn.

Late Middle Ages: Universities were founded in Bologna, Paris, and Oxford in 1167. They had access to Latin books which were Islamic translations of the Greek. Reinforced traditional medicine.

Question 26

how did the rise of Christianity affected medical practices?

Answer 26

Christianity became the official religion of Constantinople in 330 CE. Christianity emphasized
the soul, and if you are a good person you are going to go to heaven, which is better than being alive, so why treat them with medicine?

Laying of Hands: Priests laid their hands on the ill and prayed. Sort of “magical” thinking. Diseases were associated with God’s punishment. Leprosy was seen as punishment for sexual deviance.

Question 27

How did “Galenism” contributed to medieval stagnation of medicine and medical education?

Answer 27

All contemporary medical texts and compilations were works of Galen and others. Fame and ideas of Galen spread widely. Very little innovation or original medicine. Errors persisted and facts were distorted along the way from being translated from Greek to Islamic to Latin.
Galens works existed in the libraries of Alexandria. The books taught rigid order with some commentary.
However, this did meant that medical learning became standardized.

**Savage disagreements broke out about Galen’s methods and those who disagreed were excommunicated!

Question 28

Origins of hospitals in the West

Answer 28

Probably the most important medical innovation in the Middle Ages. Grew out of Christian Monastaries, charitable missions, and Islamic examples. Evolved into large institutions.

Question 29

Galenism

Answer 29

Throughout the Middle Ages, he was the most quoted source and was cited as the authority. His mistakes: “pores” in cardiac septum, humans with three-chambered heart, arteries pumping blood, five-
lobed liver, and venisection persisted.

Question 30

Nosokemia

Answer 30

(hospital): Founded by churches. Charitable organizations that were based on the idea of poor houses, hostels, hospices, wherever care for ill was given. Based in part on Middle Eastern Models. Major hospitals in Jerusalem and Ephesus.

Question 31

The Articella

Answer 31

“The Little Art of Medicine”. This was a “new canon” in which Galen predominated. It marked a turning point in reviving medical learning. Originated in Italy at Salerno or
Monte Cassino. Included Chinese and Islamic, plus Hippocratic and Byzantine influence.

Question 32

Oribasius

Answer 32

Collected the works of Galen. He simplified, rehashed, and publicized Galen. In turn, his own work later summarized, altering the legacy of Galen.

Question 33

Paul of Aegina

Answer 33

Wrote “Seven Books of Medicine” is a medical encyclopedia mostly referring to Galen.

Question 34

Bubonic Plague AKA the Black Death

Answer 34

Destroyed towns. Population of Florence dropped by 62%. Actually spread by mice. Why did it happen? (Not taught in class) Many historians believe that the bubonic plague started because Christianity created an environment for rats to flourish. The disease probably originated in Central Asia.

Question 35

Leprosy

Answer 35

No cure (in the West) during this time. Referred to A LOT in the Bible. Not as contagious as it was believed to be. People were caste out of society because they were viewed as being punished for sexual deviance. Probably ever rash was considered leprosy. Still around in certain areas.

Question 36

Insanity (Bedlam)

Answer 36

People who were insane were institutionalized. One of the major hospitals was St.Mary’s of Bethlehem, which with a British Accent became Bedlam—which WAS bedlam. Mentally Ill people were also sent to monastaries, and probably burned at the stake.

Question 37

Women’s Health

Answer 37

Female anatomy was viewed as imperfect. Women were considered vessels for the male-produced baby. Women attended births, many midwives (also a few men in this field), relatives delivered babies. Nuns also acted as nurses. Nurses in England are still called “sisters”.

Question 38

Guilds

Answer 38

medicine becoming a distinct profession:
standardized curricula (the Articella, e.g.)
formalized education (apprenticeships, universities)
examination of candidates
licensing & legal regulation
“Regular” trained physicians began to argue for eradication of unfit practitioners and quacks

Question 39

Papal Dominance

Answer 39

In the Late Middle Ages there was an enlargement of papal power. The Laterna Council forbid the shedding of blood by CLERICS. Meant for treatment, did NOT ban
dissection. They did not want Monks becoming doctors for pay and leaving their posts in the church. The church did not ban dissection. They allowed dissection of executed criminals, which was a double whammy, b/c if you were cut into pieces you would be left out of the resurrection.

Question 40

Monastaries

Answer 40

Became teaching centers for medicine and places of hospitality for the ill and destitute. Monks and priests were forbidden to practice outside their own monastaries. again so they wouldn’t leave the church to be doctors for pay.