History of Psychobiology Flashcards
How does Psychobiology explain behaviour?
Psychobiology explains behaviour in terms of biological mechanisms, linking actions and thoughts to nervous system activity.
What is Psychobiology?
Psychobiology (also known as biopsychology, biological psychology, behavioural neuroscience, or physiological psychology) aims to understand the biological basis of behaviour by explaining behaviour in terms of biological mechanisms. All behaviour is a reflection of activity in the nervous system.
How does the relationship between the brain, behaviour, and environment function?
The relationship between the brain, behaviour, and environment is a circular system:
The environment provides input,
The brain processes this input and produces behaviour,
The behavioural output then influences the environment.
Q: What is often assumed about the brain’s role in behaviour?
It is often assumed that the brain is the cause of behaviour, as it is at the centre of behavioural processes.
Can behaviour affect the brain?
Yes, behaviour and interactions with the environment can also affect the brain, showing that the relationship is not one-directional.
What does the “Black Box” represent in psychobiology?
The “Black Box” represents the internal workings of the nervous system, which need to be explored to understand how behaviour is generated.
What is reductionism in psychobiology?
Reductionism in psychobiology is the idea that the complexities of behavior are reduced to their basic/simple parts to better understand them.
What is an example of reductionism in psychobiology?
An example of reductionism in psychobiology is studying how activity in the amygdala relates to the fear response, focusing on a single brain structure rather than the whole system.
What are the main components of the limbic system?
The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and other structures involved in emotions, memory, and behavior.
How does the amygdala relate to fear responses?
The amygdala plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear, by triggering the appropriate physiological and behavioral responses.
What is the function of the corpus callosum in the brain?
The corpus callosum connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.
What role does the fornix play in the limbic system?
The fornix is a bundle of nerve fibers that transmits information from the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies and other parts of the limbic system, playing a role in memory recall.
What is the function of the mammillary bodies?
Mammillary bodies are involved in recollective memory and are part of the memory circuit connected to the hippocampus.
What is the primary role of the amygdala?
The amygdala is critical for processing emotions, especially fear and aggression, and linking emotions to memories.
What is the hippocampus responsible for?
The hippocampus plays a crucial role in forming new memories and is also involved in spatial navigation.
What is the limbic cortex and its function?
The limbic cortex, part of the limbic system, is involved in regulating emotions, mood, and motivation. It connects emotions with higher brain functions.
What is the massa intermedia, and what does it do?
The massa intermedia is a small connection between the two halves of the thalamus, though its exact function is not fully understood. It may assist in inter-thalamic communication.
What is the function of the cerebellum, and is it part of the limbic system?
The cerebellum helps coordinate motor control, balance, and posture. It is not part of the limbic system but is important for movement and coordination.
What does studying large brain regions tell us about behavior?
Studying large brain regions helps us understand how specific areas of the brain, like the occipital lobe, relate to broad functions like vision.
Give an example of how a large brain region is related to a specific behavior.
An example is the occipital lobe, which is primarily responsible for processing visual information.
What can studying groups of neurons reveal about behavior?
Studying groups of neurons can show how specific clusters, like the basal ganglia, relate to functions such as voluntary control of body movement.
How can studying individual neurons help us understand behavior?
Studying individual neurons, such as hippocampal neurons, helps explain specific functions like memory formation at the cellular level.
What is the role of hippocampal neurons in behavior?
Hippocampal neurons are crucial for forming and storing memories, playing a key role in learning and memory processes
Who was René Descartes? What was one of Descartes’ key beliefs about behavior?
A philosopher (1596-1650) known for his contributions to psychobiology and the concept of Cartesian dualism. He believed that behavior occurs automatically and involuntarily.
What is an example of an involuntary behavior described by Descartes?
The knee-jerk reflex, which occurs when tapped just below the knee.
What term did Descartes use to describe automatic reactions?
Reflexes.
How did Descartes view the relationship between the mind and body?
He believed the mind and body are separate entities that interact, particularly in the pineal gland.
What is Cartesian dualism?
The theory that the mind and body are distinct but can interact, allowing the mind to exert control over bodily movements.
What did Descartes believe about how the mind controls behavior?
He believed that the mind sends “animal spirits” down hollow tubes to produce movements in muscles and tendons.
Who disproved Descartes’ theory of “animal spirits”?
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798).
What key discovery did Luigi Galvani make regarding neural conduction?
He discovered that neural conduction is electrical in nature.
What experiment did Galvani conduct with frogs?
He electrically stimulated a frog’s nerve, causing contractions in the attached muscle, even when detached from the body.
What does Galvani’s work demonstrate about the relationship between nerves and muscles?
It demonstrates that muscles can contract in response to electrical stimulation of their corresponding nerves, independent of the whole organism.
What did Galvani’s experiments demonstrate about nerve impulses and muscle contractions?
They are produced by the nerves and muscles themselves, not directly by the brain.
How does the brain initiate movement according to Galvani’s findings?
The brain produces movement by initiating a chain of commands in the form of electrical nerve impulses.
What happens when an electrical impulse travels through the nerve in the frog’s leg?
The nerve sends its own impulse, causing the muscle to contract.
What does Galvani’s work suggest about the process of movement?
Movement involves a sequence of electrical impulses that facilitate communication between the brain, nerves, and muscles.
What significant discovery did Purkinje make regarding nerve cells?
He was the first to describe a nerve cell in detailHe discovered large nerve cells in the cerebellum, now known as Purkinje cells, which are important for balance and movement.
What is the function of the myelin sheath?
The myelin sheath insulates neurons, facilitating faster electrical impulse conduction along the nerve fibers. Theodor Schwann was the scientist (1810-1882) who described the myelin sheath wrapped around neurons.
what are the parts of a neuron?
Cell Body (Soma)
Dendrites
Axon
Myelin Sheath
Nodes of Ranvier
Axon Terminals (Synaptic Terminals)
Synapse
What are dendrites?
Branch-like structures that extend from the cell body; they receive signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body.
What is the cell body (soma) of a neuron?
The part that contains the nucleus and organelles; it integrates incoming signals and carries out metabolic activities.
What is the function of the axon?
A long, thin projection that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons or target tissues.
What is the myelin sheath?
A fatty layer that wraps around the axon, insulating it and speeding up the transmission of electrical signals.
What are the nodes of Ranvier?
Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed; they facilitate rapid signal transmission through saltatory conduction.
What are axon terminals?
The endpoints of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse to communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands.
What is a synapse?
The junction between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another, where neurotransmitters are released and received.
What is a neuron?
A neuron is a specialized cell in the nervous system responsible for transmitting information throughout the body. Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, enabling communication between different parts of the body.
What are the functions of neurons ?
Transmit electrical impulses (action potentials) along their axons.
Release neurotransmitters at the synapse to communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Integrate and process information from sensory input, leading to responses or actions.
What is a gland?
A gland is an organ in the body that produces and secretes substances such as hormones, enzymes, or other fluids. Glands are an essential part of the endocrine and exocrine systems and play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes.
How did Joseph Gall compare the brain to muscles?
Joseph Gal (1758-1858) believed that, similar to muscles, the more a specific brain area is used, the larger it becomes.
What is Phrenology and why is it discredited?
Phrenology is a pseudoscience from the 19th century that claimed personality traits and mental abilities could be determined by the shape and bumps on the skull, thought to reflect the underlying brain regions.
It is discredited because modern neuroscience shows no connection between skull shape and brain function. It lacks scientific foundation.
What is pseudoscience?
refers to beliefs, practices, or claims that are presented as scientific but lack the evidence, methodology, or credibility of actual science. Unlike legitimate scientific theories, pseudoscientific ideas don’t follow the rigorous testing, peer review, and falsifiable principles of the scientific methodExamples of pseudoscience include astrology, phrenology, and homeopathy.
These fields are often based on popular beliefs or traditions rather than rigorous scientific investigation.
What is cerebral localization?
Cerebral localization is the idea that specific areas of the brain are specialized for certain functions, such as language, memory, and motor skills. This concept is well-supported by modern neuroscience and contrasts with the discredited claims of phrenology.
What is phrenology?
This reading of bumps on the head is called
phrenology, which is considered to be largely without
foundation
What did John Baptiste Bouillaud suggest about the frontal lobes?
John Baptiste Bouillaud (1796–1881) believed the frontal lobes of the brain were responsible for higher-order mental functions like intelligence, inhibition, and planning. His ideas contributed to the modern understanding of brain function specialization.
What is the function of the Precentral Gyrus (Primary Motor Cortex)?
The Precentral Gyrus is responsible for controlling voluntary movements. It sends signals to the muscles in different parts of the body, making it essential for motor control.
What does the Frontal Lobe control?
The Frontal Lobe is involved in planning movements, recent memory, and regulating some aspects of emotions. It’s critical for higher-level thinking, decision-making, and self-control.
What is the role of the Central Sulcus?
The Central Sulcus is a prominent groove that separates the Frontal Lobe from the Parietal Lobe, dividing the brain’s motor functions (in front of the sulcus) from sensory functions (behind the sulcus).
What is the role of the Postcentral Gyrus (Primary Somatosensory Cortex)?
The Postcentral Gyrus processes sensory input from the body, such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. It allows you to feel and interpret sensations from different parts of your body.
What functions are associated with the Parietal Lobe?
The Parietal Lobe processes body sensations like touch and pain. It also helps with spatial reasoning, awareness of your body in space, and navigation.
What does the Occipital Lobe handle?
The Occipital Lobe is the brain’s main area for vision. It interprets visual information, helping you understand shapes, colors, and movement from what your eyes see.
What is the function of the Temporal Lobe?
The Temporal Lobe is involved in hearing and advanced visual processing, including the recognition of objects and faces. It also plays a crucial role in language comprehension and memory.
What are the main components of a Multipolar Neuron?
Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
Nucleus: Contains the cell’s genetic material.
Cell body (Soma): Maintains cell health.
Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.
Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon, speeding up the neural impulse.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that allow signal regeneration.
Axon terminals: Send signals to other neurons or muscles.
Neural impulse: The electrical signal that travels along the axon.
What is the function of the Dendrites in both the Multipolar Neuron and the Purkinje Cell?
Dendrites are branching structures that receive electrical signals from other neurons and transmit them toward the cell body. In both neuron types, they serve as the input sites for synaptic connections.
What is the role of the Axon in the Multipolar Neuron?
The Axon is responsible for transmitting electrical signals (neural impulses) from the cell body to the axon terminals, which communicate with other neurons, muscles, or glands.
What is the purpose of the Myelin Sheath and the Nodes of Ranvier in a Multipolar Neuron?
The Myelin Sheath insulates the axon, allowing the neural impulse to travel faster. The Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin where the signal is regenerated to maintain its strength along the axon.
What distinguishes a Purkinje Cell from a Multipolar Neuron?
Purkinje Cells are large, highly branched neurons found in the cerebellum. They have an extensive, tree-like structure of dendrites that allow them to integrate a vast amount of information. They play a key role in coordinating motor movement.
What is the function of the Axon terminals in a Multipolar Neuron?
The Axon terminals are the endpoints of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, transmitting the neural signal to the next neuron or muscle cell. (p14)
How did Phineas Gage’s accident support the concept of cerebral localization?
Phineas Gage’s case showed that damage to specific areas of the brain can affect certain functions. His frontal lobe injury led to drastic changes in his personality, supporting the idea that the frontal lobe is involved in inhibition, self-control, and decision-making.
Phineas Gage’s case showed that damage to specific areas of the brain can affect certain functions. His frontal lobe injury led to drastic changes in his personality, supporting the idea that the frontal lobe is involved in inhibition, self-control, and decision-making.
What happened to Phineas Gage in 1848?
Phineas Gage, a railroad worker, had an accident in which an iron rod shot through his skull, destroying part of his frontal lobe. This injury caused significant changes in his behavior and personality.
Before the accident: hard-working, responsible.
After the accident: unreliable, a heavy drinker, gambler, and exhibited sexually inappropriate behavior and offensive language.
What specific brain function was affected in Phineas Gage after his frontal lobe injury?
The injury to Gage’s frontal lobe affected his ability to inhibit behavior, leading to poor decision-making, impulsivity, and inappropriate social behavior.
Who was Korbinian Brodmann, and what did he contribute to neuroscience?
Korbinian Brodmann (1868–1918) was a neurologist who divided the cerebral cortex into 52 discrete areas based on differences in cellular structure, supporting the concept of cerebral localization, called Brodmann Areas (BA).
What are Brodmann Areas (BA), and how were they identified?
Brodmann Areas are regions of the cerebral cortex defined by cytoarchitecture—differences in the cellular structure of the brain. Each area has distinct layers of cells that vary in thickness, helping to delineate functional regions of the brain.
What is Brodmann Area (BA) 4 responsible for?
Brodmann Area 4 is located in the primary motor cortex and is responsible for controlling voluntary movements.
What technique did Camillo Golgi develop, and what did it help identify?
Camillo Golgi developed a silver staining technique that allowed the identification of individual neurons among other cells in the body. This was a major breakthrough in studying neuron structure.
What did Santiago Ramón y Cajal discover using Golgi’s staining technique?
Santiago Ramón y Cajal used Golgi’s staining technique to demonstrate that neurons are discrete, individual entities. This debunked the previous belief that neurons were branches of a continuous network.
How did Golgi’s and Cajal’s work complement each other?
Golgi’s silver staining technique enabled the visualization of individual neurons, while Cajal used this technique to show that neurons are separate, individual cells, contributing to the foundational understanding of the neuron doctrine.
What are synapses, and who first described them?
Synapses are the small gaps or junctions between neurons where they communicate with each other. Charles Scott Sherrington (1857–1952) was the first to identify and describe synapses.
How do neurons interact and communicate?
Neurons communicate through small gaps called synapses, where axon terminals release neurotransmitters that bind to receptors on neighboring neurons to transmit signals.
Who discovered the first neurotransmitter, and what was it?
The first neurotransmitter, acetylcholine, was discovered by Henry Dale in 1940. It plays a key role in muscle movement and neural communication.
What is the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine?
Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. It is released at synapses, especially in the peripheral nervous system, to activate muscles.
Who was Wilder Penfield, and what did he contribute to our understanding of the cerebral cortex?
Wilder Penfield (1891–1976) was a neurosurgeon who advanced the understanding of the functions of the cerebral cortex by applying electrical stimulation to specific areas of the brain during surgery, helping map cortical functions. This allowed him to identify which parts of the brain were functioning normally and which needed to be removed.
Why were patients awake during Penfield’s neurosurgical procedures?
Patients were awake during Penfield’s procedures because the brain has no pain receptors, allowing them to describe their experiences when different areas of the brain were stimulated.
What sensations did Penfield’s stimulation of the primary somatosensory cortex produce?
Penfield’s stimulation of the primary somatosensory cortex produced tingling sensations in specific parts of the body, corresponding to the area of the cortex being stimulated.
What effects did Penfield observe when he stimulated parts of the temporal lobe?
Stimulation of the temporal lobe caused some patients to report hearing music, familiar voices, or reliving familiar events from their past.
How did Penfield’s discoveries contribute to brain mapping?
Penfield’s discoveries helped to map the brain by identifying specific regions of the cerebral cortex linked to different sensory experiences, such as touch and hearing, contributing to our understanding of cerebral localization.
What was the outcome of HM’s surgery in terms of his epilepsy and memory?
Patient HM had part of both medial temporal lobes and the hippocampus removed in an attempt to reduce his seizures. The surgery successfully eliminated the seizures but caused significant memory issues such as amnesia and new memories.
What did Hubel & Wiesel discover about the visual cortex in their experiments on monkeys and cats?
Hubel & Wiesel discovered that neurons in the visual cortex respond to specific patterns of light projected onto the retina, showing the brain’s selective response to visual stimuli.
What do simple and complex cells in the visual cortex respond to?
Simple cells respond best to stationary light in a particular orientation, such as a vertical line.
Complex cells respond best to light that has a specific orientation and a particular direction of movement, such as a vertical bar moving from left to right across the retina.
How does the vision process work from the eye to the brain?
Light energy enters the eye and is focused onto the retina. This light is then converted into electrical signals, which travel through the optic nerve to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus. The signals are then relayed to the visual receiving area (V1), also known as the striate cortex, in the occipital lobe of the brain. Here, the brain processes the information, interpreting the orientation and movement of objects to create visual perception.
What did Benjamin Libet’s 1980s experiment reveal about unconscious processes and decision-making?
Libet’s experiment showed that electrical brain activity (readiness potential or RP) occurred 300 ms before participants made a conscious decision (D) to move their hand. This suggests that unconscious processes in the brain begin before we are aware of making a conscious choice, challenging the traditional view of free will.
