History of Organisational Psychology (Oxford Encyclopedia)

Question 1

Organisations are social entities

Answer 1

Organisations consist of group of members, who are united in achieving a goal or end, of which gives purpose & reason for its existence.

Question 2

Interchangeable terms for organisational psychology

Answer 2

• work psychology
• industrial psychology
• I-O psychology

Question 3

Organisational psychology

Answer 3

(1) applies scientific concepts & interpretive models
(2) in assessing mental & behavioural aspects of organisations
(3) human behaviour & interaction.

Question 4

What are the mental & behavioural aspects of organisations?

Answer 4

So individual & groups behaviours & dynamics (social networks). Organisational psychology is also interested in macro-level processes (org. strategy, structure, & change), but only to the extent that it impacts individual behaviour. (mainly with scientific research from the subfield psychology; a focus on individual behaviour leads us to explore the topics of employee well-being (stress & burnout), work motivation & job attitudes, individual differences at work, assessment & measurement & quantitative approaches for insights.

Question 5

Industrial revolution — Industrial social network problems (19th Century)

Answer 5

A growing technological society - concern was how to adapt adults to working places - & analyse working behaviour.

Question 6

The study of the scientific organisation of work (Charles Babbage, Henry Metcalfe, & Henry R. Towne)

Answer 6

• Management of people in production
• Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 - 1915) developed the Taylor Systems & the core ideas of management.
• Applied psychological techniques such as reaction-time measures & studies of movement & cooperation among workers.

Question 7

The Taylor system

Answer 7

Rationalise working procedures to increase labour productivity.
- salaries & incentives
- increase satisfaction
- increase worker efficiency

Question 8

The Taylor system was seen as inhumane; management as a “machine” Why is this so?

Answer 8

Taylor maintained that workers must accomplish their tasks always under supervision & evaluation from others, the focus on solely on worker efficiency (& reducing errors).

Question 9

The Study of the Formal Organisation of Enterprises (Henri Fayol; 1841 - 1925)

Answer 9

Governance, order & control of units within enterprises, which he had called “administration”. Enterprises seen as whole operating system with some principles. His work was seen as, very far from effective.

Question 10

The Social Theory of Bureaucracy (Max Weber; 1864 - 1920)

Answer 10

Organisations viewed as hierarchically built bodies (vertical chain of command), supported with impersonal & standardised procedures strictly followed by members who operate at various levels & are charged with differential responsibilities & power.

Question 11

Recall elements\ of bureaucracy

Answer 11

• formal rules
• well-defined methods
• rationality
• objectivity

Question 12

The Human Subject at Work (Hugo Munsterberg; 1863 - 1916)

Answer 12

“Father of psychotechnology” - “science of practical applications of psychology in the service of culture”. Devised tests to measure people’s abilities relative to a certain job . He favoured empirical-based personnel selection. Person, situation, & means-ends relationship we element to consider in every intervention (three factors interacting within the test).

Question 13

Hugo Munsterberg wanted to find out

Answer 13

If the person fits in the job (working role)

Question 14

Psychological tests were done on a large number of soldiers to assign them to better-defined jobs.

Answer 14

• Army Alpha & Army Beta Tests assessed men (Yerkers; 1876 - 1956)
• Personnel classification tests (Scott, Bingham,Watson, Thondike, & Terman; 1889 - 1955)
• Questionnaire for the detection of war neurosis (Woodworth; 1869 - 1962)

Question 15

Following world war I, organisational psychology became a growing area with research not only in the military space, but also in specialised universities, & the rise of private centres (Scott & Bingham).

Answer 15

Advice for:
- training of professionals
- personnel selection

Question 16

What were psychologists looking at during this time?

Answer 16

• the worker
• his abilities (&individual differences)
• his psychophysical constitution

Question 17

knowledge of the human factor became indispensable…

Answer 17

To help workers & employers achieve more efficient work practices.

Question 18

Key topics in organisational psychology

Answer 18

individual human differences:
- fatigue effect
- well-being of the worker
- effective selection procedures
- job analysis
- study of time and motion in working activities

Question 19

The Human Relations Model (Elton Mayo, 1880 - 1949)

Answer 19

Psychologists began to focus on human relations in industry, paying attention to social dimensions of the production process, & taking into account the “human value” of work

Question 20

Examples of social dimesions (variables) in production

Answer 20

Affecting group efficiency & productivity:
- informal rules
- leadership
- social climate, expectation, & fears

Question 21

Members interactions & member’s belonging to one effective totality (social network)

Answer 21

holistic approach to work problems:
- inter view & surveys

Question 22

Other holistic perspectives include Kurt Lewin’s model & other sociological contributions, like Weber’s bureaucratic model of management

Answer 22

• understanding of work from a human perspective.

Question 23

Following the influence of World War II, nations started to rebuild their economies, resulting in new types of economic structures (EEC; EU). Man/Machine problems characterised industrial activities, organisation became a new term, & further, organisational studies was reviewed by the Annual Review of psychology first in 1961.

Answer 23

Moreover, the viewpoint related to individual differences that dominated industrial studies was now complemented by other research oriented towards group & social levels of phenomena (as below).

Question 24

The Sociotechnical Perspective

Answer 24

A view of organisations as systems in which continuous interaction takes place between instruments (technology) and human operators.

Question 25

Kurt Lewin founded three kinds of climate within a group. These are…

Answer 25

• authoritarian
• democratic
• Laissez fair

Question 26

Lewin’s focused on researching social groups & organisational behaviour. His research inspired developments in theory & practice of group dynamics, going into phenomena about leadership, communication, pressure & resistance to change. Social attitudes & group mentality were major research fields (Wilfred R. Bion, 1897 - 1979).

Answer 26

Other salient authors in this work include Cartwright, Festinger, Horwitz; 1974. Moreover, training group were another movement, which looked at strengthening team spirits & creative thinking in a conflict situation (U.S National Training Laboratories in Maine, 1947; following WWII).

Question 27

Humanistic Psychology

Answer 27

Focused on the motivational aspect of personal behaviour

Question 28

Popular motivation theories include Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1908- 1970)

Answer 28

• hierarchy of motives from physiological from the bottom to self-actualisation on the top, through security, belongingness, & self-esteem.

Question 29

In the event of a conflict within a group, the organisation may be limited in resolving the dispute, there needs to be other factors taken into account.

Answer 29

Humanising all interactions.

Question 30

Another motivation theory is the motivation-hygiene theory, founded by Frederick Herzberg (1923 - 2000). This theory sees human motivation as binary - having a double process - satisfaction & dissatisfaction.

Answer 30

• satsifaction & personal motivation from a job occurs when there is interest, aligns with values, & opportunity for self-growth.
• dissatisfaction relates to context dimensions such as company policy, work conditions, etc,) that do not produce satisfaction.
• Preventitive / “hygiene” situation of disposing of these dissatisfactions (balancing all factors).

Question 31

Third motivation theory is ‘theory x’ and ‘theory y; by Douglas MacGregor (1906 - 1964)

Answer 31

• theory x; “classical” view of a worker; undesirable by humans.
• theory y: humans seen as self-directed operators - desire for self-esteem & self-actualisation; creative realisation; somewhat idealistic theory.

Question 32

Fourth theory raises the idea that productivity can be increase with the managerial style. These 4 managerial styles are …(Rensis Liker; 1903 - 1981)

Answer 32

• exploitative authoritative
• benevolent authoritative
• Consultative
• Participative (* deemed as most beneficial for members & the organisational as a whole; promotes group cooperation; achievement of group goals).

Question 33

Cognitive Studies on Decision Processes

Answer 33

Studies relating to the cognitive processes of decision-making

Question 34

Cognitive decision theories include Herbert Simon’s “bounded rationality” theory.

Answer 34

Organisations are seen as systems of conscious activities, largely dependent on executive decision -making. Bounded rationality refers to the idea that problems are solved using explicit or tacit knowledge. The ability to make a fully rational decision is limited, meaning executives settle on a decision that is satisfactory rather than optimal.

Question 35

Toward the humanisation of work (1960’s - 1970s) (civil rights movement; 1955 - 1963 ; major influence on a growing humanism; Globalisation; internationalisation of markets & companies; technology, personal computers, & internet; 1990).

Answer 35

• a cognitive organisational approach developed, considering both individual minds & organisations as information-processing systems, managing physical & symbolic elements & making decision for solving problems on the basis of previous information.

Question 36

Ambiguity is a main trait in social situations that organisations have to deal with (J. Galbraith, KE. Weick)

Answer 36

New topics in the I-O psychology field:
- influence of values in decision-making,
- skills needed for IT
- cognitive dimensions of performance
- behavioural theory research persisted with behaviour modification (positive reinforcement vs punishment) used to solve absenteeism, lifestyle improvement, & task performance adaptation.

Question 37

The Organisation Man (W.H. Whyte, 1917 - 1999)

Answer 37

Presented Americans as living under the protection of large organisations, instead of subscribing to traditional individualism - a very important social change.

Question 38

Examples of movements, events, laws, theories- that brought out some new humanitarian perspectives

Answer 38

• Civil Rights Act (1964) (Legal)
• Leadership (charismatic leadership; Contingency theory (a person becomes a leader under certain personality & situational factors) (Fielder)
• Motivation (‘expectancy theory” - individuals operating according to their perceived expectations of their actions- & training of economic achievement motivation (McClelland) (Vroom)

Question 39

Recent Developments

Answer 39

I-O Psychology has been given more weight as new economies rise, which brings challenges in regards to managing social change, attitudes, & desires.
- traditional topics in I-O psychology: personnel selection, labour ,socialisation, school-work transition processes, motivation, work satisfaction & the quality of life; power participation, human performance.
- impact of new technologies & the multi factor problem of unemployment.
- Another topic is organisational culture (elements that give “uniqueness” to an organisation).
- organisational health psychology ( mental health workers; stress, unemployement, & conflict, bullying, workplace violence, accident-prone personalities).
- positive psychology - focuses on positive emotions & positive subjective experiences & traits in the workplace & organsiations while trying to improvise the quality of life for both individuals & organisations.
- nuerosciences movement ; neuropsychological dimensions of behaviour in workplace activities; ie.e., perception, emotions, & motives in labour activity, stress, & productivity.

Question 40

In a survey psychological questions pertain to …

Answer 40

• work motivation
• job attitudes

Question 41

In a survey, objectives measures of working activity & results are measured by…

Answer 41

• Performance measurement
• work outcomes

Question 42

Most I-O psychological problems, especaially those related to values, job meaning, leadership, & interpersonal relationships, should always be considered from a point of view deeply embedded in cultural framework.

Answer 42

Some cultural-specific traits had effects on decision-making processes & contingent punishments, something that appears in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, & the U.S. Moreover, the meaning of work holds a different position within the value constellation among people in differing cultures.

Question 43

Child Psychology & Intelligence Testing (Alfred Binet; 1857 - 1911)

Answer 43

Organisational phenomena are, in large part, culture-bound processes.

Question 44

International Association of Applied Psychology

Answer 44

W-O psychology division was established in 1978 with professor Bernard M. Bass (1925 - 2007).

Question 45

European Network on Work & Organisational Psychology

Answer 45

Established in 1991, first president was Robert Roe (1994 - 2016), active researcher on stress & organisational development.

Question 46

Alliance for Organisational Psychology (AOP)

Answer 46

Includes:
- IAAP division
- EAWOP
- SIOP from American Psychologicla association)

Question 47

The purpose of organisational psychology

Answer 47

• keep productivity & efficiency at highest levels
• progress scientific knowledge and research
• consolidate humanistic climates to support personal well-being of employees