History of Organisational Psychology (Oxford Encyclopedia) Flashcards
Organisations are social entities
Organisations consist of group of members, who are united in achieving a goal or end, of which gives purpose & reason for its existence.
Interchangeable terms for organisational psychology
- work psychology
- industrial psychology
- I-O psychology
Organisational psychology
(1) applies scientific concepts & interpretive models
(2) in assessing mental & behavioural aspects of organisations
(3) human behaviour & interaction.
What are the mental & behavioural aspects of organisations?
So individual & groups behaviours & dynamics (social networks). Organisational psychology is also interested in macro-level processes (org. strategy, structure, & change), but only to the extent that it impacts individual behaviour. (mainly with scientific research from the subfield psychology; a focus on individual behaviour leads us to explore the topics of employee well-being (stress & burnout), work motivation & job attitudes, individual differences at work, assessment & measurement & quantitative approaches for insights.
Industrial revolution — Industrial social network problems (19th Century)
A growing technological society - concern was how to adapt adults to working places - & analyse working behaviour.
The study of the scientific organisation of work (Charles Babbage, Henry Metcalfe, & Henry R. Towne)
- Management of people in production
- Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 - 1915) developed the Taylor Systems & the core ideas of management.
- Applied psychological techniques such as reaction-time measures & studies of movement & cooperation among workers.
The Taylor system
Rationalise working procedures to increase labour productivity.
- salaries & incentives
- increase satisfaction
- increase worker efficiency
The Taylor system was seen as inhumane; management as a “machine” Why is this so?
Taylor maintained that workers must accomplish their tasks always under supervision & evaluation from others, the focus on solely on worker efficiency (& reducing errors).
The Study of the Formal Organisation of Enterprises (Henri Fayol; 1841 - 1925)
Governance, order & control of units within enterprises, which he had called “administration”. Enterprises seen as whole operating system with some principles. His work was seen as, very far from effective.
The Social Theory of Bureaucracy (Max Weber; 1864 - 1920)
Organisations viewed as hierarchically built bodies (vertical chain of command), supported with impersonal & standardised procedures strictly followed by members who operate at various levels & are charged with differential responsibilities & power.
Recall elements\ of bureaucracy
- formal rules
- well-defined methods
- rationality
- objectivity
The Human Subject at Work (Hugo Munsterberg; 1863 - 1916)
“Father of psychotechnology” - “science of practical applications of psychology in the service of culture”. Devised tests to measure people’s abilities relative to a certain job . He favoured empirical-based personnel selection. Person, situation, & means-ends relationship we element to consider in every intervention (three factors interacting within the test).
Hugo Munsterberg wanted to find out
If the person fits in the job (working role)
Psychological tests were done on a large number of soldiers to assign them to better-defined jobs.
- Army Alpha & Army Beta Tests assessed men (Yerkers; 1876 - 1956)
- Personnel classification tests (Scott, Bingham,Watson, Thondike, & Terman; 1889 - 1955)
- Questionnaire for the detection of war neurosis (Woodworth; 1869 - 1962)
Following world war I, organisational psychology became a growing area with research not only in the military space, but also in specialised universities, & the rise of private centres (Scott & Bingham).
Advice for:
- training of professionals
- personnel selection
What were psychologists looking at during this time?
- the worker
- his abilities (&individual differences)
- his psychophysical constitution
knowledge of the human factor became indispensable…
To help workers & employers achieve more efficient work practices.
Key topics in organisational psychology
individual human differences:
- fatigue effect
- well-being of the worker
- effective selection procedures
- job analysis
- study of time and motion in working activities
The Human Relations Model (Elton Mayo, 1880 - 1949)
Psychologists began to focus on human relations in industry, paying attention to social dimensions of the production process, & taking into account the “human value” of work
Examples of social dimesions (variables) in production
Affecting group efficiency & productivity:
- informal rules
- leadership
- social climate, expectation, & fears
Members interactions & member’s belonging to one effective totality (social network)
holistic approach to work problems:
- inter view & surveys
Other holistic perspectives include Kurt Lewin’s model & other sociological contributions, like Weber’s bureaucratic model of management
- understanding of work from a human perspective.
Following the influence of World War II, nations started to rebuild their economies, resulting in new types of economic structures (EEC; EU). Man/Machine problems characterised industrial activities, organisation became a new term, & further, organisational studies was reviewed by the Annual Review of psychology first in 1961.
Moreover, the viewpoint related to individual differences that dominated industrial studies was now complemented by other research oriented towards group & social levels of phenomena (as below).
The Sociotechnical Perspective
A view of organisations as systems in which continuous interaction takes place between instruments (technology) and human operators.
Kurt Lewin founded three kinds of climate within a group. These are…
- authoritarian
- democratic
- Laissez fair
Lewin’s focused on researching social groups & organisational behaviour. His research inspired developments in theory & practice of group dynamics, going into phenomena about leadership, communication, pressure & resistance to change. Social attitudes & group mentality were major research fields (Wilfred R. Bion, 1897 - 1979).
Other salient authors in this work include Cartwright, Festinger, Horwitz; 1974. Moreover, training group were another movement, which looked at strengthening team spirits & creative thinking in a conflict situation (U.S National Training Laboratories in Maine, 1947; following WWII).
Humanistic Psychology
Focused on the motivational aspect of personal behaviour
Popular motivation theories include Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1908- 1970)
- hierarchy of motives from physiological from the bottom to self-actualisation on the top, through security, belongingness, & self-esteem.
In the event of a conflict within a group, the organisation may be limited in resolving the dispute, there needs to be other factors taken into account.
Humanising all interactions.
Another motivation theory is the motivation-hygiene theory, founded by Frederick Herzberg (1923 - 2000). This theory sees human motivation as binary - having a double process - satisfaction & dissatisfaction.
- satsifaction & personal motivation from a job occurs when there is interest, aligns with values, & opportunity for self-growth.
- dissatisfaction relates to context dimensions such as company policy, work conditions, etc,) that do not produce satisfaction.
- Preventitive / “hygiene” situation of disposing of these dissatisfactions (balancing all factors).
Third motivation theory is ‘theory x’ and ‘theory y; by Douglas MacGregor (1906 - 1964)
- theory x; “classical” view of a worker; undesirable by humans.
- theory y: humans seen as self-directed operators - desire for self-esteem & self-actualisation; creative realisation; somewhat idealistic theory.
Fourth theory raises the idea that productivity can be increase with the managerial style. These 4 managerial styles are …(Rensis Liker; 1903 - 1981)
- exploitative authoritative
- benevolent authoritative
- Consultative
- Participative (* deemed as most beneficial for members & the organisational as a whole; promotes group cooperation; achievement of group goals).
Cognitive Studies on Decision Processes
Studies relating to the cognitive processes of decision-making
Cognitive decision theories include Herbert Simon’s “bounded rationality” theory.
Organisations are seen as systems of conscious activities, largely dependent on executive decision -making. Bounded rationality refers to the idea that problems are solved using explicit or tacit knowledge. The ability to make a fully rational decision is limited, meaning executives settle on a decision that is satisfactory rather than optimal.
Toward the humanisation of work (1960’s - 1970s) (civil rights movement; 1955 - 1963 ; major influence on a growing humanism; Globalisation; internationalisation of markets & companies; technology, personal computers, & internet; 1990).
- a cognitive organisational approach developed, considering both individual minds & organisations as information-processing systems, managing physical & symbolic elements & making decision for solving problems on the basis of previous information.
Ambiguity is a main trait in social situations that organisations have to deal with (J. Galbraith, KE. Weick)
New topics in the I-O psychology field:
- influence of values in decision-making,
- skills needed for IT
- cognitive dimensions of performance
- behavioural theory research persisted with behaviour modification (positive reinforcement vs punishment) used to solve absenteeism, lifestyle improvement, & task performance adaptation.
The Organisation Man (W.H. Whyte, 1917 - 1999)
Presented Americans as living under the protection of large organisations, instead of subscribing to traditional individualism - a very important social change.
Examples of movements, events, laws, theories- that brought out some new humanitarian perspectives
- Civil Rights Act (1964) (Legal)
- Leadership (charismatic leadership; Contingency theory (a person becomes a leader under certain personality & situational factors) (Fielder)
- Motivation (‘expectancy theory” - individuals operating according to their perceived expectations of their actions- & training of economic achievement motivation (McClelland) (Vroom)
Recent Developments
I-O Psychology has been given more weight as new economies rise, which brings challenges in regards to managing social change, attitudes, & desires.
- traditional topics in I-O psychology: personnel selection, labour ,socialisation, school-work transition processes, motivation, work satisfaction & the quality of life; power participation, human performance.
- impact of new technologies & the multi factor problem of unemployment.
- Another topic is organisational culture (elements that give “uniqueness” to an organisation).
- organisational health psychology ( mental health workers; stress, unemployement, & conflict, bullying, workplace violence, accident-prone personalities).
- positive psychology - focuses on positive emotions & positive subjective experiences & traits in the workplace & organsiations while trying to improvise the quality of life for both individuals & organisations.
- nuerosciences movement ; neuropsychological dimensions of behaviour in workplace activities; ie.e., perception, emotions, & motives in labour activity, stress, & productivity.
In a survey psychological questions pertain to …
- work motivation
- job attitudes
In a survey, objectives measures of working activity & results are measured by…
- Performance measurement
- work outcomes
Most I-O psychological problems, especaially those related to values, job meaning, leadership, & interpersonal relationships, should always be considered from a point of view deeply embedded in cultural framework.
Some cultural-specific traits had effects on decision-making processes & contingent punishments, something that appears in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Mexico, & the U.S. Moreover, the meaning of work holds a different position within the value constellation among people in differing cultures.
Child Psychology & Intelligence Testing (Alfred Binet; 1857 - 1911)
Organisational phenomena are, in large part, culture-bound processes.
International Association of Applied Psychology
W-O psychology division was established in 1978 with professor Bernard M. Bass (1925 - 2007).
European Network on Work & Organisational Psychology
Established in 1991, first president was Robert Roe (1994 - 2016), active researcher on stress & organisational development.
Alliance for Organisational Psychology (AOP)
Includes:
- IAAP division
- EAWOP
- SIOP from American Psychologicla association)
The purpose of organisational psychology
- keep productivity & efficiency at highest levels
- progress scientific knowledge and research
- consolidate humanistic climates to support personal well-being of employees
