HISTORY & METHODS Flashcards
1
Q
What were René Descartes, thoughts on the mind-body problem?
A
- Believe the brain control the body.
- was a dualist (uncommon)= thought the brain and body were two seperate ‘planes’ > soul (mind) influencing the brain
- mind controls brain via pineal body
- brain controls body using hydraulics
2
Q
What were Luigi Galvani, thoughts on the mind-body problem?
A
- challenged Rene Descartes thoughts on the hydraulics of the body
- took frog legs & nerve connecting to the brain < electric stimulation of brain end of nerve = nerve twitch = not hydraulic but electrical
3
Q
what did Muller and Helmholtz do?
A
- Helmholtz> first person to accurately measure rate of neural conduction = slower than electrical transmission
- Muller> experiences reflect nerves
4
Q
what is materialism?
A
- most biological psychologists are materialists
- mental processes and experiences can be explained by physical matter (brain activity)
5
Q
what is functionalism?
A
- understanding traits & behaviour in terms of their survival function > emphasising adaptation to the environment
6
Q
what are reasons for studying animals?
A
- theory of evolution> there is conservation of traits across species= things in common with other species
- animals less complex = easier understanding
- better control of individual differences
- procedures are more accepted to be done on animals than humans
7
Q
what are some guidelines/ ethics for researchers when dealing with animals?
A
- animals act of 1986 = reduce, refine and replace animal experiments where possible
8
Q
what are anatomical methods
A
- techniques and approaches used to study the physical structure and organisation of the nervous system & different brain regions
- dissection> used long time e.g. Galen
- modern dissection e.g. histology > fixing, slicing, microscopy
- Neuroanatomical Imaging e.g. MRI
9
Q
how are neural connections traced?
A
- anterograde labelling> chemicals taken up by dendrites & transmitted down axon = tells us where an area projects to (mainly on experimental animal)
- retrograde labelling> chemicals taken up by terminal boutons are carried back to cell body
- transneural tracing> trace a series of two or more neutrons e.g. pseudorabies virus
10
Q
what is computerised tomography (CT)?
A
- scanning beam of x-rays = cross-sectional images of the body
- older, cheaper & radioactive
- less detailed> single plane
- modern anatomical method
11
Q
what is Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)?
A
- modern anatomical method
- strong magnetic field
- emit radio waves when stimulated = generate detailed images of the internal structures of the body
- newer, expensive
- more detailed> multiple planes
12
Q
what is experimental ablation
A
- intentional removal or damage of specific tissue for research > Reveals organ or tissue function+ explores cause-and-effect relationships
- create lesion in animals brain > infer function from behaviours that suffer
- stereotaxic targeting> suction, electrical heat = ways to create lesion
13
Q
what are pros and cons for lesion approach (experimental ablation)?
A
+ if damage affects behaviour = causal relationship inferred
+ double dissociations > another animal with diff brain damage= testing both animals on tasks to see specific task deficits
- can’t be completely precise with lesion = can affect certain amount of tissue= ambiguities w/ interpretation
- processing vs relaying of info = damaging cell bodies or interrupting connectivity w/ other areas of brain
- plasticity= part of brain damaged might be compensated by other parts or healed
14
Q
what is neuropsychology?
A
- studying pattern of deficits shown by patients
- associating behaviour w/ site of damage
- causes e.g. stroke, injury, disease
- e.g. Phineas Gage> rod in frontal brain= personality changes
15
Q
what are problems with case of Phineas Gage?
A
- no formal testing, only broad description of way personality changed
- localisation of lesion imprecise
- no double or even single dissociations
16
Q
what is single cell recoding?
A
- insert ray of micro-electrodes into brain of animal to point where we can pick up spiking activity (action potential) of one neurone= relate specific neurone to stimulus = draw functional relationship
+ highest spatial resolution
+ highest temporal resolution - only correlational but can be combined with microstimulation for causal inferences.
- mainly for animals
- animals have to be trained for task
17
Q
what is Electroencephalography (EEG)?
A
- macro-electrodes over surface of scalp> pick up changes in electrical activity
- characteristic patterns emerge in diff states
- commonly used in event related design
+ excellent temporal resolution - ~ poor spatial resolution
18
Q
What is MEG?
A
- measure the magnetic fields produced by neuronal activity in the brain- non invasive
- less prone to scalp interference
- weaker signal> relative to background noise (unwanted signals)
- sensitive to additional orientations of neurone - info about spatial organisation of brain activity
- high temporal resolution but low spatial
19
Q
what is Positron emission tomography (PET)?
A
- radioactive marker injected > record where that electrode radioactive signal comes from in highest concentration
good spatial resolution, poor temporal - not so commonly used cos have to inject radiation
- physiological activity of the brain can be visualised using PET
20
Q
what is Functional MRI (fMRI)?
A
- similar to MRI but measures metabolism
- blood oxygen level dependent> measuring deoxygenated vs oxygenated types of blood
- no radiation= repeat scans possible
- good spatial resolution, poor temporal
21
Q
what are methods for transiently influencing brain activity?
A
- stimulating inside of brain> mircoelectrodes & macroelectrodes, chemical stimulation, optogentic methods, pharmacological interventions
- stimulating scalp> transcranial electrical stimulation, transrcanial magnetic stimulation
22
Q
what is targeted simulation?
A
- regions of brain can be electrically activated> chemical stimulation also possible, avoiding axon
23
Q
what is TMS?
A
- induced magnetic field penetrate skull, painlessly, and activate cortical neurons
-imprecise method
-creates virtual lesion - apply to specific locations at specific times
- important to rule out non specific interfernce> use control site, control task & sham simulation
- good temporal resolution, but fairly coarse spatial resolution
24
Q
How do tasks and processes relate in experimental settings?
A
- Tasks = activities assessed by outcomes
- processes = inferred mental operations
- Brain studies refine understanding, caution needed when linking tasks to processes.
25
What challenges exist in making inferences based on neuropsychology?
- Extensive damage complicates localisation > damage can affect other areas=making it difficult to pinpoint the exact origin of observed impairments
- Brain adaptation & medication effects,
- generalising from animals pose challenges.
26
How is electrical and metabolic brain activity measured in humans?
- ELECTRICAL : EEG= measures electrical activity of brain > placing electrodes on the scalp = electrodes detect electrical signals generated by neurons firing /MEG = measures the magnetic fields generated by neuronal electrical activity > good temporal, poor spatial = better for finding neural timing
- METABOLIC: PET= injecting radioactive tracer into body > taken up by metabolically active tissues > detected= info abt regional metabolic activity /fMRI = measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation lvls in brain > better spatial, slower temporal due to reliance on metabolic changes
27
What is monism?
- Believe that the mind and or mental events result from neural activity in the brain
- materialism is form of monism
28
What does the theory of evolution imply?
-New traits will be selected overtime if they increase reproductive success
- capacity to pass on genes to next generate successfully
29
What is ERP?
– records small voltage changes in brain when stimulus is presented
– takes multiple readings and avgs them out in order to filter out all brain activity not related to stimulus cos it doesn’t occur consistently
- method that produces precise detail about the time course of neural activity in healthy human
