History America Flashcards
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What caused the Wall Street Crash to happen?
1. Business was booming in the 1920s -> increasing demand for goods even though half of the USA was poor.
2. Which Lead to an overproduction crises & as confidence dipped people refrained from buying shares.
3. This all led to the October 1929 Crash.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What are some events of the Wall Street Crash?
1. Black Thursday, 24th October 1929 -> 13 Million Shares were sold. ( more than any other day )
2. Banks attempted to inflate share value by buying millions of them, Did Not Work.
3. Mass Panic of shares selling, ultimately leading to the Wall Street Crash
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some economic consequences of the Wall Street Crash?
1. Share Prices fell until 1932. Lost 80% of their value.
2. By 1933, 5,000 banks has Collapsed ( Bank of New York Collapsed -> 400,000 lost their savings )
3. Borrowing became impossible, no new companies could be started.
4. Sales of goods fell by 80%, No Demand + Investment = Workers Layed off.
5. Unemployment reached 13 Million by 1932 ( Some places reached 30% of work force )
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some social consequences of the Wall Street Crash?
1. Since many people had borrowed money they couldn’t pay back, There were several suicides.
2. Enourmous loss of confidence in the American way, if the stock-market collapsed, what could be next?
3. Shanty-towwns begam to appear on outskirts of American cities, Called Hoovervilles
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What are some ways Hoover attempted to combat the Crisis?
1. 1929 Agricultural Marketing Act
- Intended to help keep farm produce prices high as Hoover bought up any unused stock.
- Backfired as it encourages farmers to overproduce even more.
2. 1930 Hawley-Smoot Tarrif Act
- Set a tarrif on goods imported into the USA, Intended to make foreign goods more expensive than American ones.
- Backfired as other countries responded by taxing American goods sold in their country, Making it more difficult for America to make money.
3. 1932 Emergency Relief Act ( ERA )
- Gave US States ( In Total ) $300 Million in loans to support the unemployed.
- Backfired as few states took advantage of this due to the fear of not being able to repay these loans.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
A) Who were the Bonus Marchers?
B) What affect did they have on Hoover’s Reputation
A ( 1932 ) 20,000 Ex-Soldiers From WW1 that had been promised a payment of $500 by an Act of 1924. Due in 1945
- Hoover refused to pay them and used the US army to clear them away.
B) As a result, Hoover was deeply unpopular, which contributed to Roosevelt being elected in the 1932 presidential election.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What gave the foundation for Roosevelt’s New Deal?
The Three R’s
1. Relief - spend money to relieve hunger and get the unemployed back to work.
2. Recovery - support businesses and solve the problems with the banks.
3. Reform - create a welfare system to support people in need as well as make sure banks and businesses did not get into trouble again.
Roosevelt had congress pass laws that would support the 3 R’s.
- Resulting in multiple government agencies that became known as the Alphabet Agencies.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some government agencies that were set up due to Roosevelts First New Deal?
1. Emergency Banking Act ( EBA )
- Closed all banks for four days.
- Supported 5,000 banks & promised people they would not lose all their money if banks failed again. ( 2,500 Given Back If So )
- Banks were investigated & re-opened when they had enough funds.
2. Federal Emergency Relief Agency ( FERA )
- Provided $500 Million for food, clothing & housing for the poor.
3. Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC )
- Men aged 18-25 were offered jobs in the countryside, clearing forests, replanting trees etc. ( Around 2 Million )
- This only helped 8,000 Woman & It didn’t provide permanent work
4. Agricultural Adjustment Act ( AAA )
- Farmers were paid to destroy some crops and livestock to force up prices.
- Farmers earned 1.5x as much in 1936 as they had in 1933.
5. National Recovery Act ( NRA )
- This was set up to improve wages, working hours and conditions.
These Focused on Relief & Recovery
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some government agencies that were set up due to Roosevelts Second New Deal?
1. Works Progress Administration ( WPA )
- Set up more schemes to create jobs for more work for public building projects including roads, harbours & airports.
2. Social Security Act ( SSA )
- This act provided benefits for the elderly, the disabled and the unemployed, as well as widows and orphans.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some Successes of the New Deal?
1. Unemployment had fallen to around 5.6m by 1941
2. Confidence was restored in the Gov.t & their ability to help.
3. The Banking Industry was stabilised
4. 2.5m Jobs were created with the CCC alone
5. Farmers Income roughly doubled in the 1930s
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some Critiques/Oppositions to the New Deal?
1. The Supreme Court had decided that the NRA exceeded the power of the president & Infringed the rights of the states.
2. Republicans said the New Deal was spending money they did not have ( Deficit Spending )
3. Big Business attacked Roosevelt because he was giving to much power to trade union. In 1937 & 38’ there was a wave of strikes.
4. Huey Long ( Governor of Louisiana ) said there should be more done to share America’s Wealth equally.
Chapter 1 - Economic Downturn & Recovery
What were some Failures of the New Deal?
1. Recovery was only partial. In 1937 industry was still only working at 75% of its 1929 level.
2. Black American gained little imporvement in their civil rights.
3. Women made little progress towards equality. They were still paid less than men for the same work.
4. Many of the schemes that Roosevelt started only lasted for a few months. The CCC provided work for 6~9 months only.
Chapter 2 - Economic impacts of WWII & post-war developments
What impacts/effects did WWII have on American?
1. FDR set up the War Production Board in Jan 1941, which led to the production of $183b worth of supplies. ( Greatly boosting the economy )
- The Lend-Lease Act of 1941 helped this to happen.
2. The Office of War Mobilization was set up to control national prices and wages to prevent them both from becoming too high.
- Production of cars were stopped to produce war material instead.
3. In 1937, the defence industries were responsible for less than 1.5 per cent of the USA’s income, by 1945, this had risen to 50%.
4. The war quickly ended the unemployment crisies from the GD as the demand for industrial products was very high.
- There were 8.1 million unemployed people in the USA in 1940 but only just over 1 million by 1945
5. At the end of the war, US citizens wanted to start spending their money.
- This resulted in booms in car sales and house building. By the end of the 1940s, the USA was making 57% of the world’s steel and 80% of the world’s cars.
Chapter 2 - Economic impacts of WWII & post-war developments
What are some ways US society become more affluent post-WWII?
1. Truman increased the minimuim wage, as well as giving old age benefits to a further 10m Americans.
2. By the start of the 1950s, Americans had spent $100 billion that they had saved up during WWII.
3. As people become more affluent, they began spending more on luxury goods.
- E.g. By 1960, 90% of American homes owned a TV & 75% of homes had a Car.
- Advertising in newspaper & magazines, on TV aswell convinced many Americans to purchase goods.
4. Due to the Consumer Cycle, people felt much happier borrowing money.
- Hire Purchase had also increased by 800% between 1947 & 1957, allowing people to buy more goods than they would normally be able to.
Consumer Cycle - A cycle where as people spend more money, businesses make more money, and pay their workers more. As a result peoples jobs are more secure so they spend more money and the cycle continues.
Hire Purchase - Allows people to buy assests in installments.
Chapter 2 - Economic impacts of WWII & post-war developments
What was Suburanisation?
- This was when in the 1940s & 50’s living areas were being built on the outer edges of town. These were built to attract middle-class families away from town centres.
- As most American families had car’s during this period, they didn’t need to live near where they worked, meaning they could avoid the dangerous city life while raising their children.
Key Fact - Levittown was the first planned suburb, built outside of New York. Each part was made of 27 parts meaning they could be built quickly.
Chapter 2 - Economic impacts of WWII & post-war developments
What were some advantages of living in the Suburbs?
1. Surbubia embodied the ‘American Dream’. Families could bring their children into spacious homes surrounded by neighbours who were just as affluent as them.
2. Reasonably priced Houses & low interests rates on loans.
- Allowed for WWII veterans to get cheap loans and buy themselves a house.
3. These new houses had big driveways, & came with many modern labour saving appliances ( e.g. Frigdes ).
Key Fact - In 1920, only 17% of Americans had lived in the suburbs. By 1960, the number was almost 31%.
Chapter 2 - Economic impacts of WWII & post-war developments
What were some causes of poverty in America? ( 1950s & 60’s )
1. African Americans & other ethnic minorities were
discriminated against, so they were paid a lot less than white Americans.
- In 1955, 40% of the people in New York who were claiming welfare benefits were African Americans.
2. The elderly had little in the way of pensions as they had not had the money to save for one.
- In 1960, almost 68% of people over the age of 65 had an income of less than $1,000 a year.
3. Disabled people found it difficult to get jobs as a result of discrimination and a lack of suitable roles.
- In 1947, 3% of US homes had no running water and 40% didn’t have access to a toilet.
4. In rural communities there were fewer job oppturnities due to mechanisation.
- In Mississippi in 1960, 60% of families were living on less than $2,000 a year.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
What was life like before WWII for black Americans? ( 1930s )
1. In southern states in the USA black Americans had their own separate cafes, cinemas, transport and toilets.
2. ‘Jim Crow’ Laws prevented black Americans from voting and enforced separate and unequal schools.
3. ‘Jim Crow’ Laws were state laws that forced, for example, black Americans to pass tests in order to vote. 32 states had segregated schools.
Extra Info - The NAACP was founded in 1909 and tried to raise the issue of their denial of civil rights.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the contributions made by Black Americans during WWII.
1. Initially Black Americans were only allowed into supporting roles - ( e.g. Working in the kitchens, or carrying messages )
- This later changed due to the increasing amounts of wounded white soldiers.
2. By 1945, almost 750,000 black Americans were serving in the armed forces.
3. The 761st Tank Battalion was a predominantly black unit and became known as the Black Panthers ( Not the same as the 1960s Black Panthers )
- There were also Black Squadrons of fighter pilots, a famous one being Tuskegee Airmen.
Jim Crow Army ~ US armed forces were segregated into units, these were known as the Jim Crow Army.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
What are some impacts the war had on Black Americans Civil Rights?
1. Due to discrimination during the war, by 1946 the NAACP had risen from 50,000 to around 450,000.
2. The number of black Americans working from the Gov.T rose from 50k to 200k & roughly 2M Americans were in the war industry.
- These were jobs that they would have not had Pre-WWII
3. In 1942 CORE was set up & black nespapers set up the Double V campaign. Victory over Hitler & Victory in the struggle for equality.
4. There were only 12 Black officers in US Army at the start of WWII, By the end they were appointed in all 3 services.
- The Air Force began to train black pilots, 600 in Total.
In 1941 FDR issued Executive Order 8802, which banned discrimnation agaisnt black Americans in the workforce. ( Also set up the FEPC to ensure these were carried out. )
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the Brown v Topeka Case & what significance it had in the fight for Civil Rights.
- In 1951, Linda Brown’s parents asked for her to be moved to school closer to where she lived, she was denied due to her race.
- Linda’s parents requested the help of the NAACP for their court case that went all the way to the Supreme Court.
- Oliver Brown won his case, leading to the 1954 ruling by the supreme Court ‘Seperate but equal is inherently unconsititutial’
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the events of Little Rock High.
1. In 1957, 9 Black students tried to attend Little Rock Highschool.
- This was arranged by the NAACP & was only able to be done due to the Brown V Topeka case in 1954.
2. Governer Orval Faubus ordered state troopers to prevent them for going to the school.
- When they did turn up they faced an angry mob and were escorted home.
3. President Eisenhower tried to persuade Governer Faubus & allow the students to attend the school
- Eisenhower sent in 1,200 troops to aid the students & were finally able to attend the school.
- Even after LRH, By 1963 there were only 30,000/2,900,000 children at mixed school in the South.
- In 1957, Eisenhower introduced the first Civil Rights Act since 1875, prosecuting anyone who tried to deny American Citizens their rights.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the events that occured with James Meredith & Ole Miss.
1. In 1962, Ole Miss was ordered by the Supreme Court to allow James Meredith to enroll.
- Rose Barnett had a law passed that prevented convicted criminals from entering the school. ( James Meredith had been one )
2. JFK sent 300 US Marshals to protect Meredith until graduation due to prior riots by White Americans.
- Later 2,000 federal troops were sent in due to more rioting.
3. Through the example of ‘James Meredith’, it was shown that the Federal Gov.t was supportive of Black American students across America.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the events of the Montomgery Bus Boycott.
1. In 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white man.
2. The NAACP, led by Jo Ann, immediatly called for the Bus Boycott, in an attempt to end discrimination on buses.
- Around 70% of bus passengers were black at the time.
- On the day of Rosa’s trial, around 90% of Black Americans were taking part.
3. The MIA, led by MLK, was then formed, they then decided to continue on the Boycotts. The MIA organised car lifts so people didnt have to use the bus.
- Paticipating Black Americans were beaten, around 90 leading figures were arrested & black homes were burnt down by opposition.
- This Boycott lasted 381 Days.
4. Case, Browder v Gayle, was pushed by the NAACP to the Supreme Court as they argued it violated the 14th Ammendment.
- The Supreme Court agreed & in Decemeber 1956, the Alabama buses were finally desgregated.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the Freedom Rides.
1. In May 1961, CORE would set up the Freedom Rides. On these rides black Americans would deliberatly break segregation laws.
- This was to highlight that Browder v Gayle was not being enforced.
2. In Anniston, Alabama, one bus had petrol bombs thrown at it while the next bus to arrive had it’s passengers removed and attacked by an angry mob.
3. Police did little to help so JFK sent in marshall troops to protect them.
- In September 1961 the ICC ordered that buses & states must be desegragated immediatly.
ICC - Interstate Commerce Commission
The first Freedom Ride was on 4th May 1961 & it went from Washington to New Orleans.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the 1963 March on Birimingham & it’s importance in the fight for Civil Rights.
March on Birmingham:
1. Birmingham had become the focus the Civil Rights movement since; nothing had been done to desegregate & over 50% of inhabitants were black.
- They were confident the incident would get coverage.
2. MLK organised a campaign to force the city to back down, Eugene ‘Bull’ Connor responded with violence. Arrested had reached 500 a day.
3. JFK sent a representitve to negotiate for the end of these protests, George Wallce & the KKK tried to stop this from happening.
Importance:
1. Impacts of the even went far beyond the city, TV coverage had a huge effect on US & World Opinion.
2. Birmingham began to segregate & the protests ended.
3. JFK was influenced by the events to where he was sure a Civil Rights Act was needed to prevent this from happening again.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the 1963 March on Washington & it’s importance in the fight for Civil Rights.
March On Washington:
1. In August 1963, Congress was debating JFK’s Civil Rights bill. Many Civil Rights organisations organised a March in Washington to show support of the bill.
- Kennedy asked for the march to be called of to prevent the Civil Rights bill from being denied.
2. Around 250,000 people had gathered to hear speeches about how to improve Civil Rights. 20-25% of the people marching were white
- MLK also gave his ‘I Have A Dream’ speech.
Importance:
1. Due to the number of attendees, this march further raised awareness to the CRM & effectiveness of peacful protest.
CRM - Civil Rights Movement
While JFK was assinated in Nov 1963, his successor, Lydon B Johnson, got his CRL passed in 1964.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the 1963 March on Selma & it’s importance in the fight for Civil Rights.
March on Selma:
1. President Johnson removed voting rights from the Civil Rights Act to get it passed through congress.
2. In order to get new voting rights, Civil Right campaigneers focused on Selma.
- MLK organised a peaceful March from Selma to Montgomery to appeal their voting rights.
3. 7 March 1965, police attacked the marchers & the day became known as Bloody Sunday, shown in TV & newspapers.
- A 2nd March later took place leading to President Johnson getting a Voting Rights Act Passed in August 1965.
Importance:
1. There was alot of TV coverage spreading the message
2. It led to the Voting Rights Act being passed in August 1965.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
What led to the Nation of Islam & Black Nationalism?
1. In the 1960s, black Americans started to grow tired of MLK’s peaceful approach as it as simply taking to long.
- This led to growing support for Black Nationalism, the idea that white Americans couldnt be trust to solve their problems & they needed to live separatly.
2. One such group being the Nation of Islam, a religious group that argued for equality through black & white Americans living separatly.
This is good Historical Context for a Malcom X Question.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the work of Malcom X in the 1960s.
1. Malcom X focused his efforts on Urban black American communities up north, like New York.
2. He set up education schemes for young black Americans, who made up the majority of the Nation of Islam.
3. Malcom X also helped young black Americans reconnect with their African Heritage.
- Many would go on to be apart of the Black Power Movement.
4. On 26 March 1964, Malcolm X joined MLK in Washington, DC, to support the creation of the Civil Rights Act.
- Malcom X had focused on solving issues by poverty among black Americans
- He had also shown black Americans they should be proud of their culture & identity, which was an important influence for the Black Power Movement.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the Black Power Movement.
1. Black Power was a phrase used to describe the idea that black Americans should be more direct & aggressive agaisnt discrimination.
- Stokely Carmichael was the leader of the BPM, while he had been the leader of the SNCC in 1964, violence from discrimination led him to more radical views.
2. One way frustation with discrimination was shown was through race riots. The most serious of these were in Watts district of Los Angeles, Californa in 1965.
- Riots resulted in 100’s of deaths, 1000’s of injuries & $100’s of millions in property damage.
3. The 1968 Olympics, broadcasted to over 1billion people, gave a good chance for Black Power Protest.
- Tommie Smith & John Carlos made a BPP when standing on their podium. Done by performing a Black Power Salute with a black glove on.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
What Impacts did the Black Power Movement have?
Positive:
1. It persuaded Civil Rights organisations, like SCLC, to turn their focus away from passing laws & more towards improving the living conditions and enonomic circumstances for black Americans.
2. It also persuaded President Johnson that more needs to be done to help black Americans, especially in eductation.
- This led to him supporting bussing & police of affirmation action, which was to enourage employers to hire more black Americans.
Negative:
1. They were blamed for race riots & many white Americans felt alienated by the movements ideas & approach.
Bussing - Using buses to take students from the black American parts of a town to schools in the white American parts.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the Black Panthers & What they achieved for black Americans.
Black Panthers:
1. A black American organisation set up by Bobby Seale & Huey Newton in 1966.
- Inspired by Malcom X, they gained alot of publicity ( 5K Member Max ). The FBI considered them enough of a threat to surveillance.
2. Believed black Americans would be better of in a communist society. They developed the Ten-Point Programme that demanded decent jobs, house & education.
Achievements:
1. Created free medical clinics for black Americans.
2. Starting breakfast clubs to prevent hungry children.
3. Reducing levels of gang violence.
4. Organising courses of black American History.
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
Describe the 1964 Civil Rights Act & it’s achievements.
Context:
1. JFK had started working on a new Civil Rights bill in 1963 but it faced major opposition in congress.
- After JFK’s assissnation, new President Lydon Johnson persuaded congress to pass the Civil Rights Bill in honor of Kennedy.
Achievments:
1. Banned Segregation is public places, business & education.
2. Made the Gov.t responsible for prosecuting business and people that were accused of discrimination.
3. Put the FEPC in charge of making sure that people were not being discriminated agaisnt at work.
- Also created the EEOC to enforce the act.
FEPC - Fair Employment Practices Comittee
EEOC - Equal Employment Oppturnity Commission
Chapter 3 - The issue of Civil Right, 1941-70
What lead to the 1965 Civil Rights Act & what did it achieve?
Context:
1. During the Selma March, protestors were beaten by the police & this was broadcasted on the TV.
- The March & the publicity quickly convinced President Johnson to act, leading to the August 1965 Voting Rights Act.
Achievement:
1. Literacy tests were ended
2. States now had to ask the Gov.t for permission to use different Voting Qualifications.
3. Federal agents were used to make sure that there was no Voting Discrimination.
4. By the end of 1965, 250,000 black Americans were able to vote, this increased to 750,000 by 1968.
- In Mississippi, there was an 1,000% in black Americans able to vote.
5. Increase in number of black political representatives, including local councillors & eventually members of congress.
Chapter 5 - Social Change
What are some Changes in Music that occured between the 1950s-2000s?
1950’s;
- Witnessed the birth of rock and roll
- Elvis presley sung songs like ‘hound dog’ and ‘heartbreak hotel’
- First rock and roll star to influence youth in their attitude to authority and their appearance.
1960’s;
- Hard rock grew popular.
- Characterised by British bands like Beatles and Rolling stones.
- Parents were shocked by children’s explosion of anger and lack of respect for law
1970-2000;
- In 1970s, disco performers such as Donna Summerland the Bee Gees were popular, particularly with woman
- Opposite was heavy metal which is associated with aggression and masculinity.
Chapter 5 - Social Change
What are some Changes in Entertainment ( Cinema ) that occured between the 1940s-2000s?
- Over 4000 drive ins spread across USA and is popular for teen dates, called “passion pits”
- First multiplex was built in 1963 by Stanley H.Durwood in Ward Parkway Centre in Kansas City.
- 1940’s and 50’s saw the rise in antiheros who lacked traditional heroic qualities including people like James Dean and Marlon Brando.
- The VCR encouraged film hire and home viewing and was a further stimulus to the film industry.
- In 1990’s cinema attendance was up in multiplex theatres as people queued up to watch the big money actors of the era.
- Average cinema attendances fell from 90 million a week in 1946 to 47 million ten years later
- 3/4 of households owned a VCR by 1991
Chapter 5 - Social Change
What are some Changes in Entertainment ( Television ) that occured between the 1940s-2000s?
- The average American family watched 6 hours a day with the rise of subscription television
- people from other countries watching American TV shows in the 1950’s may have thought that every American is a White Christian
- throughout the years of television, these ideals of what your life should look like were ingrained in people’s minds, with few racial or religious minorities ever shown on TV
- television failed to recognise the amazing diversity within the USA
- Number of televisions increased from 7,000 in 1946 to 50 million by 1960
- Between 1959 and 1970, the percentage of households with at least one television went from 88 to 96 percent
Chapter 5 - Social Change
What are some Devlopments in IT that occured in the 1980s-2000s?
- Microsoft launch the first retail version of Microsoft windows on 20 Novemeber 1985 which had competition with their rivals Apple Inc. set up by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne
- This competition greatly inspired the growth in sales of personal computers
- Release of Windows 98 in June 1998 with the Microsoft browser integrated into the desktop enables Bill Gates to take advantage of the enormous growth of the internet
- More and more of youth’s leisure time was takn up with social networking leading to a passive lifestyle, lacking exercise and leading to obesity
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changes in Literature
- Quest for the ‘great american novel’ led to the publication of great works like “To Kill A Mockingbird” focusing on issues of racial inequality and rape
- Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye” focused on the theme of teenage rebellion in US society
- Another major part of the change in literature post WW2 was counterculture challenging against American conservatism
- Allen Ginsburg led the way with his poem “Howl” in 1956 which was so sexually explicit that it shocked contemporary American society.
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changes in Youth Cutlure
1950’s
- Decade saw the teenager and teenage rebellion being created
- Developed their own identity by wearing distinctive clothing while others ‘dropped out’ of conventional society altogether to become beatniks
Factors
- Young people had way more money to spend than the previous generation an average of $10-15 a week compared to $1-2 in 1940’s
- teenager’s annual spending power climbed from $10 billion in 1950 to $25 billion in 1959
- First generation to grow up under shadow of nuclear war, the world could end at any time so teenagers wanted to enjoy ‘today’.
- many teenagers influenced by youth films such as ‘Rebel Without a Cause’ and was the first film to bring up the issue of the generation gap
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Youth Counterculture
Teenagers further created their own identity by:
- Growing hair longer, beards became common
- Wearing blue jeans and t shirts
- Use of illegal drugs increased
- Introduction of contraceptive pill seemed to encourage greater sexual freedom
Hippy Movement
- Other people decided to ‘drop out’ of society and become hippies
- This led to them developing an ‘alternate lifestyle’
- Hippies were known as ‘flower children’ for handing out flowers to the police
- San Francisco was the hippie capital of America
- Their frequent use of drugs meant many clashes with the police who they called ‘pigs’
- Highest point of the movement was at Woodstock Rock Concert where in 1969 (over three days) in rural New York State, over half a million people attended
- They were a concern to the older generation because:
~ hippies often refused to do work
~they experimented in drugs such as marijuana and LSD
~they were from middle class, and not underprivileged backgrounds, they rejected all the values their parents believed in
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Student Protest
In 1960’s, students became heavily involved in the civil rights movement and their campaign for greater freedom of speech at universities…
Swinging 60’s
- Called the ‘swinging’ sixties as they moved further away from the older generation and its view on how young people should behave
- They demanded greater freedom in all they did: music, clothing, social life etc.
Influence of MLK
- For many white and black Americans, the first protesting they did was in the civil rights movement
- MLK’s methods proved inspirational with many white students taking part in freedom rides, sit-ins and freedom marches
- Both against the Vietnam War with a disproportionate amount of Black American students being drafted for the war, giving them a mutual challenge
Conflict in Vietnam
- Many students were called up to fight through draft system
- In 1965 there were only 2,000 casualties but this reached 14,000 by 1968
- Some students questioned the right of the USA to be supporting a corrupt South Vietnamese regime
- Even greater opposition came against the chemical weapons used like Agent Orange and napalm (which still affect people today) and the My Lai Massacre in 1968
SDS
- Tom Hayden set up ‘the Students for a Democratic Society’ (or SDS) in 1959 to give a say to students on how university and college courses should be run
- Helped to organise the free speech movement in 1964 where 27,500 students (half of the whole university of Berkeley) took part
- Played a key role in the anti war protests including staging draft card burnings
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Importance of student movement
- Although SDS and student protests did not bring an end to the Vietnam War, they certainly forced a shift in government policy which led to the ending of the war
- Influenced LBJ’s choice not to reseek election in 1968
- Also provided greater publicity for the ongoing racism in America, showed most American youths would not tolerate discrimination and segregation
- Most student campaigners were middle class (who were supposed to be the backbone of government support) shocking older generations
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changing role of woman (WW2)
WW2 - mixed results for women
- Women were able to go into more ‘male’ professions like munitions workers instead of nursing, secretaries and teaching
- The number of women employed increased from 12 million in 1940 to 18.5 million in 1945
- 300,000 women joined the armed forces in the army, navy and nursing corps
- however, after the war, majority of women willingly gave up their wartime jobs and returned to their roles as mothers.
- women were on average paid 50-60% less for the same job as a man
- women could still be dismissed from their job when they married
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changing role of women (1950’s)
- Women who went out to work instead of marrying were treated with great suspicion by society
- Growing numbers of women, especially in middle-class backgrounds, were challenging their traditional role as they were getting increasingly frustrated as housewives
- Contraceptive pill gave females a greater choice on when/whether they have children (which would prevent them from having a career)
- In 1950, there were 721,000 women in universities, by 1960, this number had reached 1.3 million
- The impact of convenience foods gave women more time to seek paid employment
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changing role of women (1960’s)
- In 1950, women were 29 percent of the workforce, by 1960 they were nearly 50 percent
- they were seen as often a cheap, part time labour for employers
- Eleanor Roosevelt created a comission that checked the status of women in work and found:
1. - 95 percent of company managers were men
2. - 85 percent of technical workers were men
3. - 7 percent of doctors were women
4. - 4 percent of lawyers were women - Betty Friedan set up the NOW (national organisation for women) in order to attack obvious examples of discrimination
- By early 1970’s it had 40,000 members
- In a series of cases between 1966 and 1971 secured $30 million in pay back to women from employers for not getting equal pay to men
Chapter 5 - Social Change
Changing role of women (Women’s Liberation Movement and Achivements of women’s movement)
WLM
- Had far more radical aims than NOW
- Believed all signs of male supremacy should be removed
- Believed in protesting by burning their bras and naming a sheep ‘Miss America’ saying the contest was degrading the position of women
- Did more harm than good; actions brought th wrong sort of attention from the media
- Were a distraction from key issues of equal pay and better job opportunities
Achievements
- Equal pay Act 1963 required employers to pay the same amount for both men and women
- Civil Rights Act 1964 made it illegal to disrciminate on grounds of gender
- Supreme court established a woman’s right to abortion after the ‘Roe v. Wade’ case in 1973
- Pregnancy Discrimination Act 1978 prevented businesses discriminating against pregnant women
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Why did rivalvry develop between the surperpowers after WWII?
1. Stalin did not trust the West & was determined to build a buffer zone.
2. During the war the Soviet people suffered terribly, 26m died. This determined Stalin that this should never happen again.
3. Britian & France had turned down an offer of an alliance with the Soviet Union in 1938.
4. The Allies had delayed invading France until 1944
5. This made Stalin very suspicious of the West.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Describe the 1945 Yalta Ukraine Conference.
1. They agreed to divide Germany into 4 zones, each one would be occupied by one of the 4 allies.
2. Soviet leader,** Joseph Stalin**, wanted communist countries in Eastern Europe to protect the Soviet Union from future attacks.
3. They disagreed over the idea of forcing the Germans to pay reparations and over who should govern Poland.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Describe the 1945 Postdam Germany Conference.
1. Stalin wanted a large amount of compensation from Germany for all of the death and destruction the country had caused in the Soviet Union.
2. Berlin was divided into 4 sectors, The Nazi Party would be dissolved. War criminals would be tried & punished.
3. There would be free electrions in Germany, freedom of speech & a free pass.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Describe the;
1. Truman Doctrine
2. Domino Theory
3. The Marshall Plan
1. In 1947, Harry Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, this contained the policy of containment which said they would go to any lengths to stop the spread of communism.
2. The Domino Theory was the fear that if one country fell to communism, neighbouring countries would follow.
3. This was part of his plan to stop the communist spread, he would offer financial aid to struggling post-WWII countries in hopes it would deter those countries from choosing communism.
- It was also done to paint captitalism in a better light than communism.
4. General George Marshall was put in charge of the Marshall Aid in 1948, which accomplished;
- Between 1948 and 1953, the USA gave 16 Western European countries over $13 billion in aid.
- In return, countries who received aid would agree to buy US goods and allow US companies to invest capital in their industries.
- Countries in Eastern Europe were given nothing which increased tensions.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Describe the events of the 1948-49’s Berlin Blockade.
1. From June 1948, until May 1949, Joseph Stalin ordered that all traffic between WG & Wb should be stopped.
- This was in an attempt to force WG into removing their Deutschmark, to halt their economic recovery.
2. This led to President Truman organising the Berlin Airlift, this is where they would try to supply Wb by air
- By April 1949, their were 1,398 flights a day, carrying almost 13,000 tons of supplies.
- In May 1949, Stalin ended the blockade.
- Airlift lasted for 10 Months, involved 275k flights & over 2m supplies.
3. These had also led to the formation of NATO & the Warsaw Pact, NATO being formed in 1949 & it was ** an agreement** that if anyone in the group was attacked, they would all help.
- In May 1955, Eastern European countries came together to form the Warsaw Pact, The creation of these 2 groups formalised the military agression
WG - West Germany
Wb - West Berlin
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
What were the causes of the Cuban Missile Crisis?
Origins of the Crisis
1. In 1959 Fidel Castro seized power in Cuba. Until then Cuba had been under US influence & many companies had invested heavily in the country.
2. Eisenhower refused Castro’s requests for aid & reduced imports of sugar by 95%
3. In 1960 the Soviet Union signed an agreement to buy 1m tonness of Cuban sugar every year.
- Tying the 2 countries closely together.
Why was there a Cuban Missiles Crisis?
1. In April 1961, the CIA tried to overthrow Castro at the Bay of Pigs. 1,400 Cuban exiles were landed at the Bay of Pigs.
2. It was a disaster & they were all killed or captured, making JFK out to be a fool.
3. In December 1961, Castro announced that he was a communist. There was now a communist country within 90miles of American soil.
4. In October 1962, US spy plane U-2 took photographs which showed Soviet missile basess being built on Cuba.
- Showing the danger of the situation.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Describe the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis & what is resulted in?
1. The blockade of Cuba began on 24th October 1962.
- 180 ships were used including a fleet of nuclear submarines.
2. Ships were going back and forth as they were searched for weapons, none were found.
- There was a stalemate & the world was waiting to see how it would end.
3. On 26 & 27th October Kennedy had recieved 2 letters from Krushchev, basically saying if the US removes their missiles from Turkey they will do the same with Cuba.
- On 28th Ocotber Krushchev ordered the deconstruction of his missile bases
- In public seemed like a great win for Kennedy & Capitalism.
Results:
1. The telephone** ‘hot-line’** was set up, this was to main clear communication between the superpowers to ensure this doesnt happen again.
2. The Partial test ban treaty was passed which ended atmospheric testing with nuclear weapons.
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Reasons for US involvement in the Vietnam War
1) - The Geneva Agreement - followed defeat of French at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 by the Vietminh
- Vietnam divided temporarily along 17th paralell with the north being controlled by Ho Chi Minh (communist) and south by Ngo Die Diem (non-communist)
- America did not want another communist country (Truman doctrine) and prevented early elections in July 1956 knowing communists would win
2) Vietcong terror campaign - Ho Chi Minh gave orders to the Vietcong to start a terror campaign on the south
3) Overthrow of Diem - in November 1963, Diem was overthrown as he was an unpopular ruler followed by a series of short-lived, weak governments; support for Ho Chi Minh grew in the south
4) Gulf of Tonkin - President Johnson wanted direct military involvement in Vietnam but needed an excuse. On 2 August 1964 SS Maddox (an American destroyer) was fired on by North Vietnamese patrol boats. This was enough for Johnson to persuade congress
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
Methods of warfare in Vietnam
1) ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’- US bombing campagin of North Vietnam that lasted 3.5 years, form 1965-6, in the hope of destroying Vietcong supply routes to the South.
- Encouraged even greater support for the war from North Vietnam and did not stop supplies to the Vietcong from the north
2) Chemical warfare - Weapons called defoliants were used to destroy jungle cover for the Vietcong
- One weapon was ‘Agent Orange’, a highly toxic weedkiller used to destroy the jungle. Americans used 82 million litres of Agent Orange to spray thousands of kilometres of jungle
- Napalm was another chemical weapon widely used by US. Burned through people’s skin at 800 degrees and could burn through skin and flesh and bone
3) - ‘Search and Destroy’ - US and South Vietnamese forces would launch ‘search and destroy’ tactics on villages suspected of assissting Vietcong forces and destroy it
- Civilian casualties often very high, with most having little or no connection to Vietcong
- This, in turn, made the USA and ARVN very unpopular with many South Vietnamese peasants who were then more likely to support Vietcong
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
The US withdrawal and peace talks
1) - By 1969, more than 36,000 members of the US military had been killed in the war.
- In May 1969, President Nixon (elected on a promise of withdrawing US troops from Vietnam) unveiled plans to end US involvement called ‘Vietnamisation’.
- Idea was that South Vietnamese soldiers would be trained and equipped to replace US troops as they were gradually withdrawn; strategy did no work as South Vietnamese forces were no match for the communists
2) - Negotiations were started in 1968 but there was no real progress over the next four years as there were arguments over petty issues as well as the fact that the South Vietnamese president (Thieu) did not want the South Vietnamese Communists at any meetings
- This was due to the fact it would give the Vietcong legal status
- Vietcong had no form of government, no recognised leader and had disrupted life in South Vietnam. Nonetheless, they were granted an official position at the table
3) - Turning point came with Nixon’s visit to China in 1972
- China then encouraged more cooperation from the government of North Vietnam
- On 23 January 1973, a ceasefire was signed in Paris
followed four days later by a formal peace treaty in which USA promised to withdraw fully all of its troops and the Vietcong was allowed to hold onto all captured areas of South Vietnam.
- Within two years, the communists had defeated the South Vietnamese Army and reunited Vietnam.
- The US had failed in its attempts to stop the spread of communism in south-east Asia. Cambodia and Laos also fell to communism, proving the Domino Theory partially true
Chapter 6 - Cold War Rivalry
The effects of the war
1) - US involvement in the war was very expensive; in 1964 the war cost the taxpayer under half a billion dollars but, within four years, this had increased to $26.5 billion dollars.
- The war was the main contributor to the government’s $26 billion dollar defecit and to rising inflation in 1968.
- The huge annual spending on the war did much to undermine Johnson’s spending on the Great Society
2) - The American policy of containment had failed. The war had shown that even the USA’s vast military strength could not stop the spread of communism
- The heavy bombing of Laos and Cambodia encouraged support for communism in both countries; by 1973 Loas and Cambodia had communist governments
3) - The Vietnam war damaged the reputation of Capitalism and did much to lessen its influence in world affairs.
- Shown to be a corrupt government that propped up a corrupt leader and the atrocities committed by US soldiers damaged the reputation of the USA and its defnece of capitalism
4) - From the war emerged the Nixon Doctrine which stated that the USA expected its allies to take care of their own military defence.
- The Vietnam War was the first war that the USA had lost and there was an unwillingness to become involved in future conflicts
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the aims of Kennedy’s New Frontier
1. It was originally a slogan to try and unite and inspire the American people.
- It soon became a programme to better the live of black Americans, low income families & the elderly.
2. Civil Rights - October 1962, Kennedy sent 23,000 troops to protect James Meredith as he attended Mississipi University.
3. Civil Right - February 1963, Civil Rights Bill introduced - aimed to black americans equality in housing and education.
- ( This was denied however )
4. The Economy - Kennedy did not balance the budget to increase economic growth and reduce unemployment.
5. The Economy - A programme of public works that costed $900M
6. Social Reform - Kennedy planned to increase minimum wage, $1 -> $1.25
7. Social Reform - Kennedy planned to start Medicare, a cheap system of health insurance.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the opposition to The New Frontier.
1. Kennedy’s position as president was only won by a small margin in the 1960s election, earning him some distrust.
2. Many older memebers of Congress felt JFK was to young and distrusted his Brains Trust appoinments.
3. Some were suspicious of the radical nature of his ‘New Frontier’ and the pace change and saw it as a socialist programme.
4. Greatest opposition came from dixiecrats within his own part who disliked JFK’s commitment to civil rights.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the changes brought by the LBJ’s “Great Society”
1. He decided the declare war on poverty.
- To do this LBJ planned to improve the health of the poor and old.
2. Civil Rights - Civil Rights Act 1964, banned discrimination in public, federally assisted programs and employment
3. Civil rights - Voting Rights Act 1965, appointed agents to ensure voting procedures were being followed.
4. Economy - LBJ cut taxes to give consumers more money to spend, inturn helping businesses.
5. Economy - LBJ improved railways and highways.
6. Social Reform - Medical Care Act 1965, provided Medicare ( for the old ) & Medicaid ( for the poor ).
7. Social Reform - Minimum Wage increased, $1.25 -> $1.40.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the Opposition to The Great Society
1. Republicans accused him of wasting money on welfare programs, and of undermining ‘Rugged individualism’.
2. He was accused of doing too little to tackle the problems of inner cities.
- 1967, there was rioting in many cities, including 6 in Watts.
3. Johnsons greatest problem was the increasing involvement in the Vietnam War, this was costly, diverting spending from The Great Society.
- It also led to increasing criticism for Johnson.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Explain why Nixon resigned as president.
( Events of Watergate Scandal )
1. 1972, Nixon was worried he would not be re-elected, CREEP advised him to use any methods possible, setting aside $350k for ‘dirty tricks’.
2. 17th June 1972, 5 CREEP members arrested for breaking into Watergate offices of the democrat party.
- It was soon obvious they were there to plant bugging devices
3. 2 Reporters, Carl Bernstein & Bob Woodward, discord the 5 burglars were employed by CREEP & the CREEP fund was controlled by the White House.
- Nixon denied any involvement.
4. January 1973, the Watergate burglars went on trial. They were all convicted & in March, James McCord claimed there was a White House cover-up.
- Nixon again denied this.
5. Senate Committee set up an investigation where it became increasingly clear White House officials were involved.
- John Dean claimed Nixon directed the burglary
6. After at first refusing, Nixon on 21st Nov 1973 handed over 7 of 9 tapes but they were edited. On 30th Apr 1974 he handed them all over, exposing his foul language and dirty tricks.
7. July 1974, Nixon was set to be impeached but he resigned to avoid this. His successor Gerald Ford pardonded Nixon of his crimes.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the effects of the Watergate Scandal.
1. Attitude to Politcians - The scandal greatly undermined people’s confidence in policians.
2. Nixons Reputation - It utterly destroyed Nixon’s reputation, he was given the nickname ‘Tricky Dicky’
- This scandal overshadowded any of Nixon’s accomplishments.
3. Reputation Abroad - The scandal damaged the reputation of America abroad. The USSR was able to use it as an example of capitalism corruption.
4. The Powers of Government - The powers of government were reduced by a series of measures, including the;
- Election Campaign Act 1974 which set limits on election contributions to prevent corruption
- War Powers Act 1974 which required presidents to consult congress before sending out troops.
- Privacy Act 1974 which allowed citizens access to any government files on them.
- Congressional Budget Act 1974 mean that the government could not use their funds for personal reasons.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the policy of Reagonomics.
1. Based on the work of Arthur Laffer, who argues that cutting taxes from the rich would improve economy as a whole:
- Reagen reasoned the Gov.T could stop many of it’s welfare programmes, involving payment to the poor.
2. To carry out these policies Reagen;
- Cut welfare spending by over $20billion a year in his first 3 years, including programmes to help struggling mothers & children.
- 1981, Economic Recovery Tax Act reduced taxes by $33billion, making it the biggest in US history - but to a point the Gov.t was barely collecting any money.
- Medicare benefits were cut requiring the elderly to pay more for health care.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the effects of Reagonmics
1. Without tax revenues, the Gov.t was unable to pay for the services it provided.
2. Even while reducing tax rates, Reagen dramatically increased Gov.t spending ( Doubled between 1981 - 1987 )
- The Gov.t had to borrow money each year, increasing national debt to nearly $1trillion.
- People in all sectors lost their jobs.
3. In 1987, Congress being worried about the increasing federal budget deficit, denied Regean’s budget increase for defence spending.
4. There was a severe stock market crash in 1987, one of the worst market crashes since the crash of 1929.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe some of the other policies that occured under Reagen.
1. The Space Programme ( 1986 )
- In January, the shuttle Challenger exploded, killing all 7 crew members
- In April, a Titan rocket, carrying secret military equipment, exploded.
- Development of ‘Star Wars’ programme was very expensive, further draining the economy.
2. The Enviroment
- Reagen suggested that damage to the environment was the price to pay for jobs and strong economy.
- A poll in 1985 showed 2/3rds of the public disagreed.
3. Civil Rights
- Reagen made some comments about MLK when congress was discussing whether to make King’s birthday a holiday. ( Reagen initially Opposed this )
4. AIDS
- By 1989, the federal Gov.t was spending $2.3billion a year on research, this was was criticised by many while others thought Reagen acted to slowly.
5. War on Drugs
- 14 October 1982, Reagen claimed that illicit drugs were a threat to US safety.
- In 1988, Reagen created the Office of National Drug Control Policy to coordinate drug-related policies.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe George Bush Snr’s initial attempt to combat the Deficit Budget.
1. Bush faced the problem of what to do with deficits ran up by Reagen.
2. At $220 billion in 1990 the deficit had tripled since 1980. He had promised to cut taxes but was forced to increase them.
3. He also had to cut military spendind & increase tax on luxury items.
4. However the budget deficit continued to rise to $300billion.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the Significant Domestic Legislations signed by George Bush Snr.
1. The American with Disability Act 1990
- Forbade discrimination based on disability in employment, public & transportation.
- This is considered the most important anti-discrimination legislation since the Civil Rights Acts
2. The Clean Air Act 1990
- This built on the 1963, 1970 and 1977 iteration of it.
- This one focused on; reducing urban smog, curbing acid rain & elminating industrial emissions of toxic chemicals.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
What were some Failures of George Bush Snr?
1. Bush gave several billion dollars to the Drug Enforcement Agency which worked on employee drug testing.
- This, however, made little impact, especially on those addicted to cocain and heroin.
2. There were race riots in Los Angles, Atlanta, Birmingham, Seatlle & Chicago in 1992 following the arrest & beating of Rodney King.
- He was an African American caught speeding.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the Changes made under Bill Clinton.
( Move away from Reagnomics )
1. By 1996, budget deficit decreased to $107billion & by 1998 it was finally balanced.
2. Value of stock market had tripled, unemployment rate was the lowest it has ever been for 30 years & there was the highest rate of homeownership in the US.
- The North American Free Trade was signed with Canada & Mexico setting up free trade, stimulating US markets.
3. 22million+ jobs were created in less than 8 years.
4. Unemployment dropped from 7% to 4% from 1993 - 2000. Unemployment for African-Americans & Hispanics fell to the lowest in records.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the social and welfare reforms that occured under Bill Clinton.
1. To help parents succeed at home & work, Clinton signed the Medical Leave Act in 1993
- Over 20million Americans have taken unpaid leave to care for a newborn or sick family member.
2. In 1996, Clinton introduced a minimum wage of $4.75 an hour, which was increase to $5.15 in May 1997.
3. By 2000, a record of 82% of mothers recieved ante-natal care. The infant mortality rate dropped for 8.5 deaths per 1000 to 7.2 by 1998, the lowest ever.
Chapter 4 - Political Change
Describe the failures of Bill Clinton.
1. Linked to the whitewater scandal of 1996 when 2 old associates were convicted of fraud over a housing area.
- While this dragged on for several years no conclusive evidence was found.
2. However, Kennith Star did find proof that Clinton had an affair with Monica Lewinsky.
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What were the reasons for détente?
- The threat of a nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis had had a sobering effect on all concerned. Hotline between Whitehouse and the Kremlin improved speed of communication and The Partial Test Ban Treaty showed a willingness to look at issue of nuclear missiles
- Both USA and USSR were keen on arms limitation talks as a means of reducing defence spending
- Nixon hoped that if they improved trade and technology links with USSR, then Leonid Brezhnev might persuade his North Vietnamese ally to negotiate an end to the Vietnam war. The idea was called ‘Linkage’
- Brezhnev did not want to see a Chinese-US alliance develop. The Soviet Leader was keen to gain access to US technology and further grain sales
- The Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia gave rise to Brezhnev Doctrine which meant that the USSR would put down any attempt to supress communist control. This alarmed US ans showed the need for dialogue between the two superpowers
7. The search for world peace since 1970
How was Détente put into action?
SALT agreements
The SALT l agreement:
- Early in Nixon’s presidency, a decision was made to talk about nuclear weapons. Talks held in Helsinki and Vienna over a period of almost three years produced SALT l
- The superpowers agreed there would be no further production of strategic ballistic missiles
- Both powers agreed that submarines carrying nuclear weapons would only be introduced when exisiting stocks of ICBM became obsolete
- SALT l was significant because it was the first agreement between the superpowers that successfully limited the number of nuclear weapons they held
SALT ll Agreements:
Final agreements for SALT ll were reached in June 1979, the terms were:
- a limit of 2,400 strategic nuclear delivery vehicles for each side
- a 1,320 limit on MIRV systems for each side
- a ban on the construction of new land based ICBM launchers
- the agreement would last until 1985
7. The search for world peace since 1970
How was détente put into action?
Helsinki agreements
- In July 1974, Nixon visited Moscow where after the meetig the two leaders agreed to develop broad mutually beneficil co-operation in all fields
- The aim was to promote increased understanding and confidence between peoples of both countries
- The Helsinki Agreements of 1975 were a product of this with the USA and USSR along with 33 other countries making declarations about three distinct international issues:
- These ‘baskets’ were: Security, Human Rights and Co-operation
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What were the reasons for changing relations with China?
- In October 1970, in an interview with Time magazine Nixon said: ‘If there is anything I want to do before I die, it is to go to China.’ This was achieved in the early 1970s
These improved relations happened for a few reasons:
- Relations between China and the USSR had worsened in the later 1960s, especially after the Chinese denounced the soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. Nixon saw this as an opportunity to exploit the split between the two communist nations
- Nixon also hoped closer relations with China might help end the war in Vietnam, as the Chinese were close allies of the North Vietnamese; example of policy of linkage
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the events of Ping-pong diplomacy
- ‘Ping-pong diplomacy’ began at the World Table Tennis Championships on 6 April 1971, when the chinese ping pong team formally invited the US team to play in their country, showing friendly relations were possible between the two countries
- They were among the first group of US citizens permitted to visit China since 1949
- On 14 April 1971, the US government lifted a trade embargo with China that had lasted over 20 years
- In February 1972, Nixon would become the first American president to visit China. The meeting would help normalise relations between the two countries and reduce tensions over Vietnam
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Why was ping-pong diplomacy important?
- It led to the restoration of Sino-US relations which had been cut for more than two decades
- This triggered a series of other events, including the restoration of China’s legitimate rights in the UN by an overwhelming majority vote in October 1971 and the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and other countries
- Moreover the lifting of the trade embargo with China meant that trade could be restored between US and China, but economic benefits were slow as it would take decades for American products to penetrate the vast Chinese market
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the Soviet involvement in Afghanistan
- On 27 April 1978, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan, a communist party, overthrew the government of Afghanistan
- Nur Muhammad Taraki, Secretary General of the PDPA, became the President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
- During its first 18 months, the PDPA imposed a communist-style reform programme. In addition thousands of the traditional élite were murdered, imprisoned and tortured
- The mujahideen declared a jihad on the Amin government (seized power from Taraki), proclaiming to be on a holy mission for Allah to overthrow the Amin government
- Brezhnev was concerned that the 30 million Muslims living in the USSR that there would be no changes to the way the USSR was run and between 25 December 1979 and 1 January 1980, more than 50,000 troops were sent to Afghanistan to restore order and protect the PDPA from the mujahideen
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What was the reaction of President Carter to the Afghanistan invasion?
- USA saw that a Soviet-occupied Afghanistan would threaten India and Pakistan and would be a stepping-stone to possible Soviet control of much of the West’s oil supplies
- Carter adopted a firm approach with USSR because he was already under pressure in November 1979 following the seizure of US embassy staff as hostages in Iran in which he failed to solve the problem:
- The Carter Doctrine stated that the USA would use military military force if necessary to defend its national interests in the Persian Gulf region and promised military aid to the countries bordering Afghanistan
- Carter continued his tough approach by asking the Senate to delay passing the SALT ll treaty
- The USA cancelled all shipments of grain to the USSR, and US companies were forbidden to sell high-tech goods there, such as computers and oil drilling equipment
- Carter pressured the United States Olympic Committee to boycott the 1980 Moscow Olympic Games. Sixty one other countries followed suit
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What was Ronald Reagan’s view on the USSR?
- Reagan, who defeated Carter in the 1980 presidential election, believed in taking a far tougher line with the USSR than Carter and had not interest in détente
- In a speech to the British House of Commons on 8 June 1982, Reagan called the USSR ‘an evil empire’
- He was determined to win the Cold War and believed that the USSR could be forced to disarm by his new initiative: SDI
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What was the Strategic Defence Initiative?
- The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), which became known as ‘Star Wars’ (after the film) took the nuclear arms race to a new level
- It proposed a ‘nuclear umbrella’, which would stop Soviet nuclear bombs from reaching American soil
- Reagan’s plan was to launch an army of satellites equipped with powerful lasers, which would intercept Soviet missiles in space and destroy them before they could do any harm to the USA
- SDI proved to be a turning point in the arms race. During détente, the superpowers had been evenly matched and had worked together to limit the growth of nuclear stockpiles
- SDI was a complete break from this policy. Soviet leaders knew they could not compete with Reagan’s ‘Star Wars’ plan. They were behind the USA in space and computer technology, while the Soviet economy was not producing enough wealth to fund further defence spending
- By the early 1980s relation between the two superpowers had deteriorated to such an extent that this period is often described as the beginning of the Second Cold War
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What were Gorbachev’s new policies?
Mikhail Gorbachev introduced three important strategies which greatly changed relationships with the West, and more especially the USA:
- He initiated sweeping reforms in the Communist Party and Soviet system in the USSR. These included perestroika (restructuring) which meant economic reforms designed to make the Soviet economy more efficient, and glasnost (openness) in which censorship of the press was relaxed
- He ended the arms race with the USA and signed various arms reduction agreements
- He stopped Soviet interference in eastern European satellite states such as Poland and Czechoslovakia
7. The search for world peace since 1970
How did Ronald Reagan react to Gorbachev?
- At first Reagan reacted in a negative way towards Gorbachev’s reforms. He actually made Gorbachev’s reforms much more difficult by doing things like giving speeches demanding the general secretary ‘tear down this wall’.
- However, eventually Reagan supported the reforms but refused to ‘reward’ Gorbachev with economic concessions, believing these might encourage the USSR to revive
7. The search for world peace since 1970
How were Gorbachev’s policies taken by the USSR and what did he try to achieve with him?
- Gorbachev wanted to maintain the USSR’s role of superpower. He knew that he had to win over the Soviet people and show the world that he would not threaten world peace
- He assumed that perestroika and glasnost would strengthen the power of the Soviet Communist Party. However, glasnost was two-edged sword for Gorbachev as the more freedom that people gained, the more they wanted and the more they began to criticise Gorbachev - making it more difficult to maintain the Communist Party’s grip on power
- The economy had been damaged by the arms race, space race and invasion on Afghanistan as well as by a system that did not encourage incentive. Perestroika did bring some considerable changes and certain aspects of a free economy were introduced. However, these were not fast enough to satisfy many Soviet people or make much difference to their standard of living
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the start of the end of the arms race
- Arms limitation talks were renewed after it was clear that Gorbachev was keen to change relations with the West.
- A sumit meeting between Gorbachev and Reagan was held in Geneva over 2 days in November 1985.
- Though nothing was decided, the Geneva Accord was et out which committed the two countries to speed up arms talks. Both leaders promised to meet in the near future and it was clear to many observers that the two men had got on well
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, 1987
- Although a second summit meeting at Reykjavik in 1986 failed to reahc agreement on arms limitation, a third summit in Washington in December 1987 was more successful, with the signing of the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty
- This treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500-5,500km
- By the treaty’s deadline, 1 June 1991, a total of 2,692 such weapons had been destroyed; 846 by the USA and 1,846 by the USSR. Also both nations were allowed to inspect each other’s military installations
- The INF treaty was important because it was the first treaty to reduce the number of nuclear missiles that the superpowers possessed
- It therefore went much further than SALT l, which simply limited the growth of Soviet and American stockpiles
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the Moscow summit
- After the signing of the INF Treaty, the final summit meeting was held in Moscow in May 1988
- Much of the West seemed to be overtaken by what became known as ‘Gorbymania’. It was as if Gorbachev had become a pop star.
- At the Moscow Summit there were more arms control talks. The summit led to the Conventional Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty, which was signed by NATO and Warsaw Pact representatives in November 1990.
- The agreement reduced the number of tanks, missiles, and aircraft held by the signatory states
7. The search for world peace since 1970
What was the relationship like between Gorbachev and Bush?
include START
- The USA and the USSR continued to enjoy good relations. The new US president, George Bush Sr, and Gorbachev were able to announce that the Cold War had come to an end in a summit in Malta in 1989
- When Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990 the two superpowers acted closely and followed the directives of the UN. However, Gorbachev did not commit any troops to the coalition forces that invaded Iraq
- At the Washington summit of 31 May-3 June 1990, Bush and Gorbachev discussed Strategic Arms Limitation (START) and finally signed the Treaty for the Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Arms (START l), on 31 July 1991
- It called for both sides to reduce their strategic nuclear arms over the next seven years. This meant reducing 25 to 35 per cent of all their strategic warheads
- Bush and Gorbachev signed the treaty with pens of scrapped missiles
7. The search for world peace since 1970
When did the rivalry between the USA and Russia actually end?
- At Malta Conference in 1989, US President George Bush Sr declared that the Cold War was over.
- However, it was not until 1991, with the end of communist control of Eastern Europe and the fall of the USSR, that the rivalry between the superpowers ended
What changes happened in Eastern Europe?
- In December 1988, Gorbachev withdrew Soviet troops from Eastern European bases to save money.
- In the following year he announced what became known as the Sinatra Doctrine - that members of the Warsaw Pact could make changes to their countries without expecting outside interference
- He had hoped to strengthen communism in Eastern Europe but all he did was weaken it. Once reform had started in these countries, he was unable to contain it
7. The search for world peace since 1970
How were induvidual countries affected by the changes in Eastern Europe?
East Germany:
- Gorbachev tells East Germany that Soviet troops will not put down East German demonstrations in October 1989
- 300,000 people protested in Leipzig in 23 October 1989
- One million people protest in East Berlin in 4 November 1989
- In 9 November 1989 the Berlin Wall was opened and Germany was reunified into one country in 1991
Czechoslovakia:
- Huge demonstrations against communism begin in 17 November 1989
- The communist government resigns in 24 November 1989
- Václav Havel becomes first non-communist President of Czechoslovakia since 1948
- Democratic elections won by Civic Forum which was an alliance of anti-communist groups in 1990
Poland:
- Strikes throughout the country occurred in 1988
- Free trade union (Solidarity) wins elections. Mazowiecki becomes first non-communist Prime Minister in Eastern Europe
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the fall of the Berlin Wall
- This event has come to symbolise the end of the Cold War. However, it would be wrong to confuse the fall of the wall with the end of the war
- On 9 November 1989, the East German government announced the opening of the border crossings into West Germany
- The people began to dismantle the Berlin Wall. Within a few days, over 1 million people had seized the chance to see relatives and experience life in West Germany
- East and West Germany finally reunited in October 1990
- Tension in the world seemed to ease by the day, while the power of the USSR seemed to be dwindling so quickly. The new Germany joined NATO and, in 1991, the Warsaw Pact was dissolved
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the collapse of the USSR
- The events in Eastern Europe had a catastrophic impact on the USSR. The many nationalities and ethnic groups saw how the satellite states had been able to break away from Moscow
- In 1990, the Baltic states of Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia declared themselves independent, which was accepted by Moscow in 1991. This led to other demands for independence within the USSR
- Gorbachev found that he was opposed by most sections of Soviet society. In August 1991, there was a coup d’etat which was defeated by Boris Yeltsin who was president of the Russian Socialist Republic
- Gorbachev was restored as General Secretary but he had lost his authority. Gorbachev resigned in December 1991 and the USSR split into several independent states
- The fall of the USSR finally ended the rivalry between communism in the East and capitalism in the West. Now there was only one superpower left - the USA
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the US involvement with Middle East and Iran
- Americas closest ally in the Persian gulf region was Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran. For 25 years the Shah had tried to modernise Iran by rapid industrialisation and the emancipation of women.
- However this modernisation and increasingly tyrranical government led to his forced abdication in January 1979 which unsettled the whole region…
- The USA had vital oil interests in the Gulf area and especially Iran
- This period saw the growth of religious fundamnetalism in the region which demanded an end to Western (especially American) imperialism and seriously threatened US Middle Eastern oil interests
- Iran was now controlled by the fundamentalist religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who denounced the USA as the ‘Great Satan’ and announed an islamic republic determined to destroy all western influences
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the Iranian hostages situation
- On 4 November 1979, the US embassy in Tehran was taken over by militant Iranian students. 66 Americans, including diplomats and their guards, were taken hostage.
- In return for the release of the hostages, the Ayatollah Khomeini demanded that the USA agree to the extradition of the former Shah who was undergoing medical treatment in New York with the crisis dragging on for over a year:
- The US governement refused to hand over the Shah and suspended Iranian oil imports. Carter threatened Iran with military action if the hostages were not released
- The Ayatollah refused to budge and threatened to try some of the hostages on a charge of spying on Iran for the USA
- In April 1980, a resuce mission by US forces went horriby wrong in the Iranian desert. A helicopter and a refuelling aircraft collided in a staging area. Eight servicemen were killed and the operation called off
- Negotiations for the release of the hostages resumed after the death of the Shah in July 1980. On 20 January 1981, 20 minutes after Reagan was sworn in as president, 52 American hostages were released by Iran into US custody, spending 444 days in captivity
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe The Gulf War 1990-91
- On 2 August 1990 Saddam Hussein, the leader of Iraq, ordered the invasion of Kuwait, one of the leading oil producing countries in the Middle East.
- In less than 24 hours the country was under Iraqi control. Saddam invaded for several reasons:
- Burdened with debts from Iraq’s war with Iran, Saddam saw Kuwait as a rich prize
- Saddam claimed that Kuwait was historically part of Iraq, although in fact Kuwait had existed as a separate territory since 1899
- Saddam did not expect the USA to use its military power in support of Kuwait, as the US had been supporting him throughout the war against the Iranian regime.
- They had no action taken against him when, in 1988, he brutally crushed a rebellion of the Kurds in north of Iraq
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the military campaigns of the Gulf War
- With almost 2,000 aircraft, General Norman Schwarzkopf, the US commander of the coalition forces in the Gulf, opened the campaign with an air assault
- Operation Desert Storm, the air offensive against Iraq, was launched on 16 January 1991. In the first 10 hours a combination of stealth aircraft, cruise missiles, electronic warfare and precision-guided munitions took apart Iraq’s military infrastructure and wrecked its gorund forces
- After more than a month of ‘softening up’, Operation Desert Saber, the grounnd offensive to liberate Kuwait, was launched on 23 February 1991. By 27 February, Kuwait City had been taken by coalition troops and the following day the US ordered a ceasefire
7. The search for world peace since 1970
Describe the outcome of the Gulf War
- Saddam was allowed to withdraw with much of his army intact. The retreating Iraqis were at the mercy of the Allies, but Bush called a ceasefire because:
- he was afraid that if the slaughter continued, the allies would lose support of other Arab nations
- it was widely expected outside Iraq that, after his humiliating defeat, Saddam Hussein would be overthrown
- when the Gulf war ended in victory, Bush’s reputation stood high. However, as time passed, he was increasingly criticised for not having pressed home the advnatage and for allowing the brutal Saddam to remain in power
- Saddam not only survived but had enough troops, tanks and aircraft to brutally supress rebellions by Shia Muslims in the south and Kurds in the north
