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Endocrine I > Histology of the Pituitary, Hypothalamus, and Pineal Lecture (Dr. Cole) > Flashcards

Histology of the Pituitary, Hypothalamus, and Pineal Lecture (Dr. Cole) Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine System

A
  • The Endocrine System WORKS ALONGSIDE THE NERVOUS SYSTEM to maintain homeostasis by Influencing, Coordinating, and Integrating Physiologic Functions of the Body

Endocrine consists of:

1) GLANDS
- Pituitary Glands

2) ISOLATED GROUPS OF CELLS WITHIN ORGANS
- ISLETS OF LANGERHANS in Pancreas

3) INDIVIDUAL CELLS SCATTERED AMONG PARENCHYMAL CELLS
- DNES (Diffuse Neuroendocrine Cells)

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2
Q

Endocrine Cells

A
  • Typically arranged as Cords/ Follicles
  • ALWAYS very close to FENESTRATED Capillaries
    a) Endocrine Cells release their Hormones INTO FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES —–> Distribution throughout the Body
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3
Q

Hormones

A

HORMONES: Chemical Substances that Control and Regulate the activity of certain Cells/ Organs
- CRITICAL FOR LIFE and even activity of Daily Living (Homeostasis): Digestion, Metabolism, Growth, Development, Reproduction, Mood

  • Slower ONSET and Longer DURATION than Nervous Control
  • 5 Major Classes:
    1) Amino Acid Derivatives ( Dopamine, Epinephrine)

2) Small Neuropeptides (GnRH)
3) Large Proteins (LH, FSH)
4) Steroids (Cortisol, Estrogen)
5) Vitamin Derivatives (Vitamin D)

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4
Q

Target Cells

A

TARGET CELLS: Cells on which the Hormones act

  • Contain Surface or Cytoplasmic Receptors for Specific Hormones
    a) PROTEIN HORMONES —> Attach to Surface Receptors —-> Activate Secondary Messengers

b) LIPID SOLUBLE HORMONES —> Cross Cell Membrane —> Bind to Intracellular Receptors

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5
Q

Feedback Systems

A
  • Endocrine Glands are also Target Organs
  • Body is able to Control Hormone Secretion through Feedback Mechanisms to keep Blood Hormonal Levels WITHIN Strict Limits

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: A stimulus is Sent and Elicits a response, which the feedbacks to ELIMINATE the Initial Stimulus until a response is needed again
- MOST COMMONLY USED Control Mechanism for the Endocrine System

POSITIVE FEEDBACK: A Stimulus is sent and Elicits a response; the Target Organ then feedback to EXAGGERATE or Continue the Initial Stimulus

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6
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Location:

  • Floor of the DIENCEPHALON
  • Forms part of the WALL OF THE THIRD VENTRICLE
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7
Q

Hypothalamus: Function

A

“MASTER SWITCHBOARD”

  • Connects Nervous and Endocrine Systems
  • Controls the Endocrine System by sending messages to the PITUITARY, which in turn releases Hormones to stimulate ENDOCRINE GLANDS/ CELLS
  • Role in Autonomic, Endocrine, and Limbic System

**Helps maintain HOMEOSTASIS!!!!!!!

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8
Q

Hypothalamus Regulates by…

A

1) Hypothalamus produces Releasing Hormones (RH) and Inhibiting Hormones (IH) that DIRECTLY Influence Anterior Pituitary Hormone Secretion
2) Hypothalamus produces two Hormones (OXYTOCIN and ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE) that are stored in the POSTERIOR PITUITARY
3) Hypothalamus oversees the ANS, thereby helping to Stimulate the ADRENAL MEDULLA via SYMPATHETIC INNERVATION

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9
Q

Hypothalamic Nuclei

A

HYPOTHALAMIC NUCLEI: Cluster of Neurons
- Multiple Hypothalamic Nuclei

  • SUPRAOPTIC and PARAVENTRICULAR Nuclei BOTH produce ADH and Oxytocin, which are stored in the POSTERIOR PITUITARY
    a) SUPRAOPTIC nucleus PRIMARILY produces ADH (Vasopressin/ Arginine Vasopressin)!!!!!!

b) PARAVENTRICULAR Nucleus PRIMARILY produces OXYTOCIN!!!!!!!!!

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10
Q

Thyrotropin- Releasing Hormone (TRH)

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Thyrotropin- Releasing Hormone (TRH)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- STIMULATES release of PROLACTIN and THYROTROPIN (Aka Thyroid Stimulating Hormone, TSH)

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:
- Stimulates Thyroid production of T3 and T4 Thyroid Hormones

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11
Q

Gonadotropin- Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- STIMULATES release of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:

  • FSH Stimulates FOLLICULAR Development (Ovaries) and Spermatogenesis (Testes)
  • LH Stimulates OVULATION, ESTROGEN, and PROGESTERONE production (Ovaries) and TESTOSTERONE Production (Testes)
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12
Q

Corticotropin- Releasing Hormone (CRH)

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- Stimulates release of ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH)

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:
- Stimulates the ADRENAL CORTEX to release CORTISOL
-

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13
Q

Growth Hormone- Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH)

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- Stimulates the Release of GROWTH HORMONE (GH)

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:
- Stimulates Growth, Decreases Glucose UPTAKE, Increases Protein Synthesis, Organ Size, and Lean Body Mass

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14
Q

Somatostatin

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Somatostatin

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- INHIBITS release of GH and TSH

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:
- None

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15
Q

Prolactin- Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) aka DOPAMINE

A

HYPOTHALAMUS:
- Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) aka Dopamine

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
- INHIBITS release of PROLACTIN

TARGET TISSUE AND FUNCTION:
- Prolactin stimulates LACTATION and Inhibits release of FSH, LH, and GnRH!!!!!!

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16
Q

Pituitary Gland Introduction

A

aka HYPOPHYSIS

” MASTER GLAND”

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17
Q

Pituitary Gland Description

A
  • Suspended by a Stalk from the Hypothalamus
  • Size of a Pea

LOCATION:

  • In the SELLA TURCICA within the SPHENOID BONE of the Skill
  • POSTERIOR to the OPTIC CHIASM

SELLAR DIAPHRAGM:
- Dura Mater that extends over and COVERS the Pituitary within the Sella Turcica

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18
Q

Nonfunctional Pituitary Adenoma

A

***A PITUITARY Tumor GREATER THAN 1 cm Diameter (Macroadenoma) present with symptoms due to Mass Effect

  • Compresses Optic Chiasm —> BITEMPORAL HEMIANOPSIA (Issues with Peripheral Vision)
  • Compresses Pituitary —> HYPOPITUITARISM
  • HEADACHE!!!!!
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19
Q

Pituitary Embryogenesis

A

Develops from 2 SEPARATE Embryonic Origins:
1) ORAL ECTODERM —> Biomes ANTERIOR PITUITARY (Adenohypophysis)

2) NEUROECTODERM —> Becomes POSTERIOR PITUITARY (Neurohypophysis)

Results in 2 “Glands”:

1) ADENOHYPOPHYSIS (Anterior Pituitary)
- Andeno: Gland

2) NEURIHYPOPHYSIS (Posterior Pituitary)
- Neuro = Nervous System

UNITED ANATOMICALLY BUT VERY DIFFERENT FUNCTIONALLY!!!!*

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20
Q

Pituitary Embryogenesis: 2 Distinct Origins

A

ANTERIOR PITUITARY:
1) ORAL ECTODERM Origin

2) Evaginates from Roof of Mouth
3) Forms RATHKE’S POUCH!!!!!
4) Grows CRANIALLY
5) Pinches off at the Base of Pouch to Separate it from the Oral Cavity

POSTERIOR PITUITARY:
1) NEUROECTODERM Origin

2) Evaginates from Floor to DIENCEPHALON
3) Grows Caudally as a Stalk
4) Never detaches from Brain
5) Ramins as INFUNDIBULAR STALK

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21
Q

Pituitary Embryology- Overview

A

1) A Diverticulum called the INFUNDIBULUM develops in the Floor of the DIENCEPHALON and Grows toward the STOMODEUM
2) Simultaneously, an ECTODERMAL region in the roof of the STOMODEUM INVAGINATES to form a Diverticulum called RATHKE’S POUCH!!!!
3) RATHKE’S POUCH Elongates toward the INFUNDIBULUM
4) The Infundibular Process descends along the Dorsal Side of the Elongating Rathke’s Pouch
5) The Regressing Stalk of RATHKE’S POUCH can leave Residual Tissue, which may become a TUMOR called a CRANIOPHARYNGIOMA!!!!!!!!!!!!

TWO SIGNALING MOLECULES FORM THE DIENCEPHALON CONTROL THE ELOPEMENT OF RATHKE’S POUCH:

1) Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4
- Induces formation of the Pouch Rudiment

2) FIBROBLAST GROWTH FACTOR 3
- Activates the Key Regulator genes LHX3 and LHX4, and subsequent development of the Pouch Rudiment into a Definitive Pouch.
- LHX3 belong tot he family of LIM-TYPE HOMEOBOX-CONTAINING GENES

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22
Q

Craniopharyngioma

A
  • Benign Childhood Brian Tumor that usually is SUPRASELLAR
  • Similar to Pituitary Adenomas, can compress Optic Chiasm and cause BITEMPORAL HEMIANOPSIA
  • Derived from REMNANTS of RATHKE’S POUCH; Often contains CYSTIC SPACES and CALCIFICATIONS
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23
Q

Pituitary Regions

A

1) ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
a) Pars DISTALIS: Anterior Portion
b) Pars TUBERCLES: Surrounds the Infundibular Stalk
c) Pars INTERMEDIA: Division between Anterior and Posterior

2) Neurohypophysis
a) Pars NERVOSA
b) INFUNDIBULAR STALK

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24
Q

Pars Distalis (Pars Anterior)

A

***Largest portion of the PITUITARY GLAND (75%)

Made up of:

1) Glandular Epithelial Cells arranged in THICK CORDS
- Secrete the Six Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

2) FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES (Sinusoids)
- Part of the Secondary Plexus

3) Some f the TISSUE STROMA

25
Q

Adenohypophysis Hormones

A

1) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
2) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
3) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
4) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
5) Prolactin
6) Growth Hormone (GH)

“FLAT PiG”

26
Q

Pars Distills (Pars Anterior)

A

** Cells classified into 2 groups (based on staining)

1) CHROMOPHILS
- Granules in the Cells readily take up H&E STAIN
- Chromophils divided into ACIDOPHILS and BASOPHILS

a) Acidophils:
- Aced Dye Loving
- Takes up Eosin (Pink)

b) Basophils:
- Basic Dye Loving
- Takes up Hematoxylin (Purple/ Blue)

2) CHROMOPHOBES
- NO taking up of the Stain; Lacks Affinity

27
Q

Chromophobes

A
  • Stian Poorly
  • Only their Nuclei are Visible
  • DO NOT Produce Hormones; FUNCTION UNKNOWN
  • Smaller than Chromophils
28
Q

Basophils

A
  • Stain with BASIC DYE (Purple/ Blue and Darker with H&E)

Cells –> Hormone Synthesized:
1) Gonadotrophs —> GONADOTROPINS (FSH, LH)

2) Corticotrophs —> ADENOCORTICOTROPIN (ACTH)
3) Thyrotrophs —> Thyrotropin (TSH)

29
Q

Acidophils

A
  • Stian with ACIDIC Dye (Pink with H&E)

Cells —> Hormone Synthesized
1) Mammotrophs —> PROLACTIN

2) Somatotrophs —> GH

30
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

A
  • Gonadotrophs (Basophils)

Stimulated by:
- GnRH from Hypothalamus

Inhibited by:

  • INHIBIN
  • Feedback Inhibition by ESTROGEN in Females

EFFECT:
- FSH Stimulates Ovarian Follicle Maturatino and Estrogen production in Females; stimulates SERTOLI CELLS to produce Sperm in Males

31
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A
  • Gonadotrophs (Basophils)

Stimulated by:
- GnRH from Hypothalamus

Inhibited by:
- Feedback Inhibition by Estrogen and Progesterone in Females and Testosterone in Males

EFFECT:
- LH Triggers Ovulation and stimulates Ovarian production of Estrogen and Progesterone in Females; Promotes LEYDIG CELL production of Testosterone in Males

32
Q

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)

A
  • Corticotrophs (Basophils)

Stimulated by:
- CRH from Hypothalamus

Inhibited by:
- Feedback Inhibition by Glucocorticoids (Cortisol)

EFFECT:
- Stimulates the Adrenal Cortex to release Glucocorticoids and Androgens

33
Q

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

A
  • Thyrotrophs (Basophils)

Stimulated by:
- TRH from Hypothalamus

Inhibited by:
- Feedback Inhibition by Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)

EFFECT:
- Stimulates Thyroid Gland to release T3 and T4 —> Control Metabolism

34
Q

Prolactin

A
  • Mammotrophs/ Lactotrophs (Acidophils)

Stimulated by:
- Prolactin Releasing Hormone and TRH; Both from Hypothalamus

  • Decreased PIH (Dopamine); Enhanced by Estrogens, Birth Control, Breast Feeding, Dopamine Antagonist Drugs

Inhibited by:
- Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) —> Dopamine

EFFECT:

  • Stimulated Milk Production and Promotes LACTATION
  • Inhibits GnRH and then, FSH and LH
35
Q

Growth Hormone (GH)

A
  • SOmatotrophs (Acidophils)

Stimulated by:

  • GHRH from Hypothalamus
  • Hypoglycemia
  • Low levels FA’s
  • High Blood levels of AA’s
  • Exercise

Inhibited by:

  • Somatostatin
  • Feedback Inhibition by GH and IGF-1
  • Hyperglycemia
  • Hyperlipidemia
  • Obesity
  • Emotional Deprivation

EFFECT:
- Indirectly stimulates Overall Growth of Bone and Soft Tissue via Production of Insulin Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) aka SOMATOMEDIN

36
Q

Pars Intermedia

A
  • Between Pars Distills and Pars Nervosa
  • Function UNKNOWN
  • Frequently has a Cleft (Remnant of RATHKE’S)

Consists of:

  • Small Basophils
  • Colloid Filled Follicles line by Pale Cuboidal Cells
37
Q

Infundibulum

A
  • Suspends Pituitary Gland from Hypothalamus

Composed of 2 Parts:

1) PARS TUBERALIS
- Surrounds Infundibular Stalk (Part of Anterior Pituitary)

2) INFUNDIBULAR STALK
- Neural Portion (Part of Posterior Pituitary)

38
Q

Infundibular Stalk

A
  • A Thin Neural Stal connecting the Median eminence of the Hypothalamus to the Pars Nervosa

Composed of 2 Parts:
1) MEDIAN EMINENCE

2) INFUNDIBULAR PROCESS

39
Q

Pars Tuberalis

A
  • Forms a Sheath surrounding the Infundibular/ neural Stalk (Neural Portion; Part of Posterior Pituitary)
  • Part of ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
  • Function Unknown
40
Q

Neurohypophysis Hormones

A

Storage Site for 2 Hormones:
1) ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) aka Vasopressin aka Arginine Vasopressin (AVP)

2) OXYTOCIN

  • Both Hormones produced by 2 Nuclei of the Hypothalamus
    1) Supraoptic Nucleus (Primarily produces ADH!!!!!!)

2) Paraventricular Nucleus (Primarily produces OXYTOCIN!!!!)

How It Works:
- Hypothalamic Nuclei produces and Secretes the Hormone —> Travels down the Axons via the Infundibular Stalk into the Pars Nervosa —> Stored until signaled to be released into Blood to take Effect

41
Q

Pars Nervosa

A

PITUICYTES:

  • Glial Like Cells
  • Appear to support Numerous UNMYELINATED Nerve Fibers traveling from the Hypothalamus

HERRING BODIES:

  • Expanded Axon Terminals
  • FILLED WITH the stored Neurohypophysis Hormones, ADH (Vasopressin) and OXYTOCIN
42
Q

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH aka Vasopressin)

A
  • Primarily produces by SUPRAOPTIC Nucleus in HYPOTHALAMUS (But also produced in the PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS)

FUNCTION:
- Regulates Serum Osmolarity (Via V2 Receptors in DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE and COLLECTING DUCTS) —–> Causes Water RETENTION and CONCENTRATES URINE

  • Potent VASOCONSTRICTOR at High Doses (Via V1 Receptors)

RELEASE REGULATED BY…
- HYPOTHALAMIC Osmoreceptors and Baroreceptors

43
Q

Oxytocin

A
  • Primarily produced by Paraventricular Nucleus in HYPOTHALAMUS (But also produced in the Supraoptic Nucleus)

FUNCTION:
- Contraction of Smooth Muscle

  • Uterine Contractions during Labor and After to Contract Uterus back down to NORMAL SIZE
  • Breast Myoepithelial Cells facilitate MILK EJECTION
  • “Feel Good Hormone”
44
Q

Pituitary Blood Supply

A

INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY
- Superior Hypophyseal Arteries —> Supply Median Eminence and Infundibulum

  • Inferior Hypophyseal Ateries —> Supply PARS NERVOSA

NO Direct Blood Supply to the Anterior Pituitary*

45
Q

Hypothalamohypophyseal Portal Circulation

A

A) Superior Hypophyseal Arteries give rise to the PRIMARY CAPILLARY PLEXUS (In MEDIAN EMINENCE)
- Collect Hypothalamic releasing and Inhibitory Hormones

B) The Primary Capillary Plexus is drained by Hypophyseal Portal Veins and delivers Blood into the Secondary Capillary Plexus (In Pars Distalis)
- Collect Anterior Pituitary secretion adds ends them into Circulation via FENESTRATED CAPILLARIES

C) Inferior Hypophyseal Arteries give rise to the 3rd Capillary Plexus
- Supplies and Collects Hormones from Posterior Pituitary
(ADH and Oxytocin)
- Sends them into Circulation via their own Hypophyseal Veins

46
Q

Hypothalamohypophyseal Portal Circulation Cont

A

1) Superior Hypophyseal Arteries

(Give rise to…)

  • ——–>
    2) Primary Capillary Plexus

(Drains into…)

  • ———>
    3) Hypophyseal Portal Veins

(Supplies…)

  • ———>
    4) Secondary Capillary Plexus

(Fenestrated Capillaries into…)

  • ———->
    5) CIRCULATION
47
Q

Venous Drainage of the Pituitary

A
  • Anterior Pituitary Gland secretes Hormones —> Diffuse into Capillaries —> Venous Sinuses (Petrosal and Cavernous)
  • Posterior Pituitary Gland Secretes Hormones —-> Diffuse into Capillaries —–> Hypophyseal Veins —-> Venous Sinuses (Petrosal and Caervnous)
48
Q

Pineal Gland Introduction

A
  • Aka Epiphysis Cerebri

- Neuroendocrine Transducer handling Photic information from the RETINA

49
Q

Pineal Gland (Body)

A
  • Develops from a Posterior outpacing of the ROOF of the Diencephalon in Midline of 3rd Ventricle
  • Cone Shaped, size of a Pea
  • Roles in Growth, Development, and Regulation of CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
  • MAIN FUNCTIONS are to Manufacture MELATONIN and SEROTONIN

**It has NO DIRECT NERVE Connection to the Brian. Regulated by POSTGANGLIONIC SYMPATHETICS from Superior Cervical Ganglion

50
Q

Pineal Gland (Body) Cont

A
  • Contains a CAPSULE derived from PIA MATER

Made up of:

1) Pinealocytes
2) Neuroglia Cells
3) Calcified Granular Material (“BRAIN SAND”)
4) Contains NO NEURONS

51
Q

Pinealocytes

A
  • Neuron like —> Functional Cells
  • Large, Pale, Irregular Nuclei
  • Regulated by BETA-ADRENERGIC Receptors
  • Main Function is Production of MELATONIN and SEROTONIN
  • MELATONIN only Synthesized AT NIGHT!!!!!
  • SEROTONIN only Synthesized during THE DAY!!!!!!!
52
Q

Neuroglia Cells

A
  • Interstitial Cells
  • Smaller, Dense Nuclei
  • SUPPORT PINEALOCYTES!!!!!
53
Q

Melatonin

A
  • Synthesized by TRYPTOPHAN
  • Functions to MAINTAIN CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS —> Secreted after Exposure to Darkness (Light Decreases Production)
  • Contributes to DROWSINESS when Lights are turned on
  • Acts to DELAY SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT until Puberty by Inhibiting GnRH and GH Secretion
  • When Puberty arrives, Melatonin production Decreases
  • PINEAL TUMORS linked to PRECOCIOUS PUBERTY (Decreases Melatonin —> Sexual Maturity Early)
54
Q

Melatonin Treatment

A

Melatonin is used for treatment in:

1) Jet Lag
- Disrupted Circadian Rhythm

2) Seasonal Affective Disorder
- To Help Regulate Emotional Responses due to Decreased daylight During Winter

3) Sleep Disorder (Insomnia)

55
Q

Pineal Gland Special Note

A
  • There is NO DIRECT Evidence for Pienal effects in Humans, but in Seasonally Breeding Animals the Pineal Mediates the responses of the Reproductive System to Changes in Day Length
56
Q

Kallman Syndrome

A
  • Delayed/ Absent Puberty and Anosmia (No sense of Smell)
  • Hypogonadotropic Hypogonadotropism
  • Genetic Mutation
  • Prevents Migration of GnRH Neurons to Arcuate Nucleus and Olfactory Neurons to Olfactory Bulb
57
Q

Pituitary Gigantism

A
  • Due to loss of Feedback Control of Growth Hormone Secretion to GH Secreting tumor in the Pituitary (ADENOMA)
58
Q

Acromegaly

A
  • Excessive ADULT production of Growth Hormone
  • Growth of face (Prognathism), Hands and Feet
  • Increase in Viscera
  • Overproduction of Glucose leads to Diabetes
  • Due to Loss of Feedback Control of Growth Hormone Secretion or to GH Secreting Tumor in Pituitary

TREATMENT:

  • Surgery
  • Radiation
  • Growth Hormone Receptor Antagonist
59
Q

Pituitary Dwarfism

A
  • Growth retardation resulting in abnormally short adult stature
  • It is caused by a variety of Hereditary and Metabolic Disorders
  • PITUITARY DWARFISM IS CAUSED BY INSUFFICIENT GROWTH HORMONE
  • Problem can be in Hypothalamus or in Pituitary
  • Non Pituitary Dwarfism may also be a result from INADEQUATE Nutrition in EARLY LIFE

TREATMENT:
- INJECTION OF GROWTH HORMONE

  • Hereditary (Genetic) Dwarfism includes ACHONDROPLASIA, with Normal Trunk Size but SHORT LIMBS and a LARGE HEAD
  • HYPOCHONDROPLASIA, similar Except for NORMAL HEAD SIZE
  • DIASTROPHIC DWARFISM with Progressing, Crippling Skeletal Deformities

Endocrine I (13 decks)

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