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HISTO YR2 > HISTO2 > Flashcards

HISTO2 Flashcards

1
Q

How can we divide the respiratory system from the anatomical and histological point of view?

A

Anatomical: upper and lower respiratory system.
Histological: conducting and respiratory portions.

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2
Q

What is the basic structure of the respiratory system?

A

There are four main layers. The respiratory mucosa, the submucosa, cartilage and/or muscle layer and the adventitia layer.

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3
Q

What is the submucosa of the respiratory system composed of?

A

It is made of CT, and there might be collagen fibers and elastic fibers. There are also glands.

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4
Q

What is the general structure of the nasal cavity?

A

The nasal cavity lies as two cavernous chambers separated by the nasal septum. Here we have sweat and sebaceous glands and stratified squamous epithelium which changes from keratinized to non keratinized moving inwards.

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5
Q

What epithelium lines the internal part of the nasal cavity?

A

Pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium aka respiratory epithelium.

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6
Q

How is the respiratory mucosa structured?

A

Pseudo stratified epithelium, mucous secreting cells and goblet cells. Also contains surfactant producing cells called Clara cells.

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7
Q

What are the five types of cells found in the respiratory tract?

A

Ciliated columnar cells which are the most abundant.

Goblet cells which produce mucous.

Brush cells which are columnar cell but with lookalike microvilli and they are chemosensory receptors.

Small Granule Cells part of the neuroendocrine system.

Basal cells which are mitotically active stem and progenitors cells.

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8
Q

What is the structure of the olfactory epithelium?

A

It contains olfactory chemoreceptors for sense of smell which axons then lead to the olfactory bulb. There are also supporting cells aka Sustentacular cells which help maintain a micro environment. There are also basal cells and olfactory glands of bowman which produce a constant flow of fluid facilitating the access of new odoriferous substances.

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9
Q

What are Olfactory Ensheating Cells?

A

These cells wrap around the axons similarly to glial cells. They are important because they protect the axon and guide it toward the olfactory bulb.
REMEMBER: these are not myelinated axons

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10
Q

What are type I and type II pneumocytes?

A

Type I are large flattened squamous cells, very abundant, thin diffusion barrier for gases.

Type II are more irregular in shape and they produce pulmonary surfactant.

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11
Q

What are capillary endothelial cells?

A

They are found in the alveolar walls, are very thin, not fenestrated. They are macrophages.

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12
Q

What are the components of the urinary system?

A

Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.

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13
Q

What are the main functions of the urinary system?

A

Filtration: occurs in the glomeruli of the kidney, and selective reabsorption and excretion in the tubular system of the kidney. Important for water, electrolyte and ph balance. Excrete metabolic waste in urine and excretion of bio active substances such as drugs.

Metabolism: converts vitamin D into active form, gluconeogenesis during starvation periods.

Secretion of active molecules: Renin to regulate blood pressure and Erythropoetin a glycoproteins GF to stimulate erythrocyte production in the BM.

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14
Q

How is the kidneys parenchyma divided?

A

Renal cortex: glomeruli and filtration units.

Renal medulla: aligned linear tubules and duct which give striated appearance.

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15
Q

What is the nephron function and structure?

A

It is the functional unit of the kidney. It is composed by several parts with specialized epithelial cells.

Renal corpuscle: initial part that encloses capillaries in the cortex, site of blood filtration.

Proximal tube: long tube entirely in the cortex with a shorter part entering the medulla.

Loop of Henle: made of descending and ascending limbs in the medulla.

Distal tubule: thick straight part ascending from the loop back into the cortex.

Connecting tube: short minor part linking the nephron to the collecting ducts.

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16
Q

What is the structure of the renal corpuscle?

A

It is full of capillaries wrapped by a double walled epithelial capsule called a glomerular capsule aka Bowmans capsule. The outer layers is simple squamous + basal lamina, the inner wall is formed by podocytes that are in contact with fenestrated capillaries important for renal filtration.

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17
Q

What are podocytes?

A

They have a soma and protrusions, the tiniest ones are called Pedicels and are in contact with the basal membrane. The opening between the pedicels are called filtration slits.

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18
Q

What are the three components of blood filtration?

A
  1. Fenestrations of the capillary endothelium that block blood cells and platelets.
  2. Thick BM that restricts large proteins and some organic anions.
  3. Slit diaphragms between pedicels that restrict small proteins and organic anions.
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19
Q

What are mesengial cells?

A

They are cells that fill the spaces between capillaries that are not covered by podocytes. They provide physical support, adjusted contractions in response to blood pressure changes, phagocyte protein aggregates and secrete several cytokines and prostaglandins for immune defense and repair.

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20
Q

What is the histological structure of the renal tubules?

A

Proximal convoluted tubule: simple tall cuboidal epithelium with a brush border.
Loop of Henle: simple squamous epithelium
Distal convoluted tube: cuboidal epithelium with few microvilli
Collecting tubule: not part of nephron but is cuboidal or columnar.

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21
Q

What are the main functions of the Proximal convoluted tubule?

A

PCT cells are specialized mainly in reabsorption and some secretion. They also perform modification of vitamin D and release it into capillaries. PCT reabsorbs more than 50% of water, electrolytes and other organic nutrients that filtered from the plasma in the renal corpuscle.

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22
Q

What are the main functions of the Loop of Henle?

A

Its main function is the re-uptake of water and sodium chloride from urine.

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23
Q

What are the main functions of the Distal convoluted tubule?

A

DCT cells are used as sensors to respond to the sodium ion concentration in the fluid which is important to maintain homeostasis. They are sensitive to aldosterone a hormone produced in the adrenal glands which stimulates the absorption of sodium ions and secretion of potassium ion. So DCT cells drive the use of their hormones to counteract aldosterone.

24
Q

What are the main functions of the collecting ducts?

A

This final site of water absorption is under hormonal regulation by ADH released by the pituitary gland during dehydration. Aquaporins respond to ADH promoting water reabsorption.

25
Q

What is the general structure of the excretory passages?

A

The general architecture is very similar. Lumen, epithelium, lamina propria, submucosa, very thick muscle layer and adventitia. The mucosa is lined with transitional epithelium aka urothelium which changes shape as it lines the structure. The cells are known as umbrella cells and they modulate their structure based on the fullness or emptiness of the lumen.

26
Q

What are the main functions and what is the structure of ureters?

A

The ureter, one per kidney, is a long muscle walled tube with stratified transitional epithelium.
The epithelium is organized in three layers: single layer of basal cells, intermediate layer of some cuboidal and columnar cells and a superficial layer of umbrella cells sometimes bi nucleated.
The lamina propria is thick and fibroelastic.
The thick SM in the outside.

27
Q

What are the main functions and what is the structure of the urinary bladder?

A

It is a sub peritoneal organ and can contain on average in an adult 400-600 ml of urine. It has a highly folded urothelium, a lamina propria with dense irregular CT which is highly vascularized. The muscle is called detrusor muscle.

28
Q

What are the main functions and what is the structure of the urethra?

A

It is a fibromuscular tube which functions as a conduit for urine to exit the body and in males also for semen. There is no transitional epithelium, it is lined by different types of epithelium. The lamina propria contains loose CT and the SM cells of the muscolari are longitudinal.
The female urethra is shorter and is initially lined with transitional epithelium.

29
Q

What are the main types of hormone bio chemical structure?

A

Peptides and proteins, steroids, amino acid derivatives, fatty acid derivatives also known as eicosanoids.

30
Q

What are pancreatic islets? Which cells compose them?

A 
They are endocrine portion of the pancreas and make up 1-2 % of tot vol.
A cells release glucagon.
B cells release insulin.
D cells release somatostatin.
F cells release pancreatic polypeptides.
31
Q

What regulates the activity of alpha and beta cells?

A

Their activity is regulated by blood glucose levels. increased glucose levels stimulate beta cells to release insulin and inhibit alpha cells from releasing glucagon.

32
Q

What is the name of the precursor cells for the pancreatic lineage?

A

Pdx1

33
Q

What is the anatomical structure of the pituitary gland?

A

The pituitary gland is found at the base of the brain in a bony cavity. The posterior part is known as neurohypophysis and is connected to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk. The anterior part known as the adenohypophysis is derived from the oral ectoderm.

34
Q

What is the histological difference between the two parts fo the pituitary gland?

A

The neurohypophysis retains many histological features of the brain, it is lighter than the Adenohypophysis. The adenohypophysis has 3 parts.

35
Q

What are the three parts of the Adenohypophysis?

A

Pars distalis: Makes up 75% of total volume, surrounded by a thin fibrous capsule, the two main cells are Chromophobes and Chromophils.

Pars tuberalis:It is a smaller funnel shaped region surrounding the infundibulum of the neurohypophysis, most of the cells produce sex hormones.

Pars intermedia: It is a a narrow zone lying between the pars distalis and nervosa.

36
Q

What are the two parts of their neurohypophysis?

A

Pars nervosa and infundibular stalk. It only secretes to hormones, antidiuretic hormone and oxytocin.

37
Q

What is the general anatomical structure of the adrenal glands?

A

They are a pair of glands lying near the superior pole of each kidney. They are covered by a dense connective tissue capsule and there are trabeculae that project into the parenchyma and divide. The two zones are called medulla and cortex.

38
Q

What happens in the cortex of the adrenal glands?

A

Where are three zones:
Zona glomerulosa: 15%, closely packed, columnar and Piramidal cells with many capillaries, secretes mineralocorticoids like aldosterone and corticosterone.

Zona fasciculata: 65-80% , Polyhedral cells, secrets glucocorticoids which are important for carbohydrates, proteins and lipids metabolism.

Zona reticularis: 10%, smaller cells, secretes weak androgens and small amounts of cortisol.

39
Q

What happens in the medulla of the adrenal glands?

A

Medullary parenchymal cells are called chromaffin. They are large basophilic polyhedral cells.They secrete noradrenaline and adrenaline. The cells that store epinephrine stain lighter that those that store norepinephrine.

40
Q

Where are catecholamines together with Ca2+ and ATP stored.

A

They are stored in granular storage complexes with proteins called Chromogranins.

41
Q

What is the anatomical structure of the thyroid gland?

A

It is located anterior and inferior to the larynx and consists of two lobes united by an isthmus. It is covered by a fibrous capsule which it’s septa extend into the parenchyma dividing it in lobules.

42
Q

Which are the thyroid hormones?

A

They are derivatives of tyrosine bound covalently to iodine. They are called for example tri iodo thyronine and thyroxine. Also release calcitonin.

43
Q

How are thyroid hormones produced and what are their functions?

A

Iodide is pumped into the lumen of the cells where thyroglobulin is produced. The iodide is then oxidized to iodine. Tyrosine residues iodinate to from MIT or DIT that then couple to form T3 and T4.

The functions: they stimulate mitochondrial proteins synthesis, inhibit the release of thyroid stimulating hormone, digestion, bone health and others.

44
Q

What is the anatomical structures of the parathyroid glands?

A

They are four small ovoid masses located at the back of the thyroid gland, embedded in larger capsules. Each Glenda is contained within a thin capsule from which septa extend into the gland.

45
Q

How is the parenchyma of the parathyroid glands composed?

A

We find chief cells also known as principal cells. They are small polygonal cells with round nuclei, pale staining. They contain polypeptide parathyroid hormone which is important in calcium regulation. We also find oxyphil cells which are much larger and characterized by a very acidophilic cytoplasm filled with abnormally shaped mitochondria.

46
Q

What is the general anatomical structure of the pineal gland? What is the composition of the parenchyma?

A

It is a small pine cone shaped organ in the center of the brain, derives from the Neuroectoderm, contains septa with small blood vessels and different lobules.

We find pinealcytes which produce melatonin which is very important in the regulation of the circadian rhythm. We also find glial cells.

47
Q

What is the general anatomical and histological structure of the ovaries?

A

The ovaries are small, oval shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The outer region is called cortex and the inner region is called medulla. Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries. In the ovary we find cuboidal epithelium, the epithelium covers a CT capsule called tunica albuginea.

48
Q

What are primordial,primary follicles and secondary follicles.

A

Before puberty all follicles are primordial, the oocytes are arrested in meiotic prophase I. After puberty the follicle start growing and maturing into primary follicles. The secondary follicle is where the lumen or antrum is large fluid filled, after this stage the follicle can furthermore mature and become a mature Graafian follicle.

49
Q

What is the function of lending cells?

A

They are interstitial cells located in the seminiferous tubules in the testes. They produce androgen, testosterone under the control of the pituitary luteinizing hormone.

50
Q

What is the function of setoli cells?

A

They are the somatic cells of the testes that are essential for formation and spermatogenesi. They produce luminal fluid, phagocytosis of residual bodies.They facilitate the progression of germ cells to spermatozoa via direct contact.

51
Q

What are some defining characteristics of the different parts of the male reproductive system?

A

Seminiferous tubules: found in the testicular lobes, we find setoli and germ cells, they produce sperm.

Tubuli re ti: found in the periphery of the mediastinum testis, setoli cells and simple cuboidal, has CT, they convey sperm into the rete testis

52
Q

What are spermatogonia?

A

They are large precursor cell with a round nuclei.

53
Q

What is the duct of the epididymis and what are some features?

A

It is a coiled duct where sperm undergoes maturation. It is enclosed by many blood vessels and covered by a tunica vaginalis. It is lined by a pseudo stratifies columnar epithelium with stereocilia, principal cell which secrete glycoproteins and glycolipids.

54
Q

What is the duct deferens and what are some main features?

A

It is long straight tube with a thick muscular wall and a relatively small lumen. It empties in the prostatic urethra. It is lined by pseudo stratified columnar epithelium, surrounded by a thick muscular wall.

55
Q

Which protective structure is present in the respiratory system but not in the GI tract?

A

Cilia

HISTO YR2 (1 decks)

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