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Histo and Neuro pt 3 > HISTO: Blood > Flashcards

HISTO: Blood Flashcards

1
Q

Blood divided into:

A

Fluid Components and Formed Elements (Cells)

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2
Q

Fluid Components:

A

Plasma (Contains water, inorganic salts, proteins)

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3
Q

Major protein of plasma:

A

albumin

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4
Q

clotting factors

A

fibrinogen

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5
Q

Formed Elements (Cells):

A
  • erythrocytes (red blood cells)-( 98 – 99% of cells)
  • leukocytes (white cells) and platelets– (1-2% of cells)
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6
Q

Useful in diagnosing various disorders including anemia, viral infections, parasitic infections, and bone marrow cancer among others.

A

CBC and Differential: “Complete blood cell count”

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7
Q

Erithrocytes histology:

A
  • Anucleate cells
  • Biconcave disk shape
  • 7 - 8 microns in diameter
  • No organelles are present. It is essentially a bag of hemoglobin
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8
Q

Immature erythrocytes called ___ may make up ~ 1% of erythrocytes

A

reticulocytes

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9
Q

Erithrocytes function:

A

transport O2 and CO2

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10
Q

The erithrocyte cytoskeleton is composed primarily of a protein called

A

spectrin

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11
Q

Spectrin is crosslinked to

A

to the plasma membrane integral proteins glycophorin C (purple) & band 3 protein (orange) by the band 4.1 protein complex and the ankyrin protein complex

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12
Q

The Band 4.1 protein complex consists of

A

band 4.1 protein, dematin, tropomodulin, actin, adducin, tropomyosin and binds the spectrin cytoskeleton lattice to glycophorin.

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13
Q

The Ankyrin Protein Complex consists of

A

ankyrin and band 4.2 protein forms the ankyrin protein complex which the binds the spectrin cytoskeleton to band 3 protein

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14
Q

Hereditary Spherocytosis is due to

A

defect in ankyrin protein complex - spectrin cytoskeleton is unable to bind properly with defective ankyrin. Cells are more fragile & transport less oxygen

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15
Q

Hereditary Elliptocytosis is due to

A

defect in spectrin or band 4.1 protein complex.
2/3 cases

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16
Q

There are 4 major blood group Types:

A

Type A, Type B, Type AB, and Type O.

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17
Q

Blood types depend on

A

the differences in the specific carbohydrate groups bound to the plasma membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids.

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18
Q

All blood types have the enzyme for ___

A

the type O-antigen

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19
Q

Type A blood:

A

an additional enzyme N-acetylgalactosamine transferase

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20
Q

Type B blood:

A

an enzyme galactose transferase

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21
Q

Type AB blood:

A

both enzymes galactose and N-acetylgalactosamine and are present

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22
Q

Type O blood:

A

has niether enzyme, but can only receive O-type blood since will make antibodies to both the A-type and B-type antigens

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23
Q

What makes an individual Rh +

A

Rh(D+), Rh(C+), and Rh(E+) antigens

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24
Q

Erythroblastosis fetalis is:

A

when an Rh- mother is pregnant with an RH+ fetus, and mounts an immune reaction against the fetal erythrocytes.

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25
Q

antigenic group most commonly involved in Erythroblastosis fetalis:

A

Rh(D+)

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26
Q

Erythroblastosis fetalis treatment:

A

treated by administering anti-D antibodies (RhoGAM) to the mother to destroy any circulating fetal Rh(D+)

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27
Q

most common hemoglobin type in adults

A

Hemoglobin HbA alpha beta

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28
Q

Hemoglobin HbA2

A

alpha delta

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29
Q

main type of hemoglobin in fetus

A

Hemoglobin HbF alpha gamma

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30
Q

rare hemoglobin, due to defective α-chain synthesis,

A

Hemoglobin HH

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31
Q

Thalassemia disease:

A

decreased hemoglobin polypeptide chain synthesis

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32
Q

Sickle cell anemia:

A

point mutation in ß-chain of hemoglobin

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33
Q

Anemia:

A

decrease in the concentration of hemoglobin in the blood usually due either to a decrease in hemoglobin per cell or a decrease in the number of erythrocytes

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34
Q

Pernicious anemia can result from

A

Vit B 12 deficiency

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35
Q

Hemoglobin H Disease:

A

Results from defective hemoglobin alpha chain synthesis. As a result often find individuals with hemoglobin with 4 beta chains.

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36
Q

Hemoglobin type A1c (HbA1c) in diabetes:

A

characterized by permanently binding glucose

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37
Q

Carbon monoxide poisoning:

A

Results from breathing in large amounts of carbon monoxide and can be fatal. The carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin to form carboxyhemoglobin which prevents the blood from carrying oxygen.

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38
Q

the white blood cells (WBC’s)

A

leukocytes

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39
Q

Luekocytes histology:

A
  • Are nucleated cells
  • Are motile & typically enter CT at
    postcapillary venule
  • Function in immune system & inflammatory response
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40
Q

Leukocytes main classes:

A

Granulocytes and Agranulocytes

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41
Q

Granulocytes:

A

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

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42
Q

Agranulocytes:

A

monocytes & Lymphocytes

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43
Q

contain two main types of granules:

A

Azurophilic granules and Specific granules

44
Q

Stain with azure II & are lysosomes. Thus are common to all three granulocyte types.

A

Azurophilic granules

45
Q

These are specialized granules containing substances specific to function of that class of granulocyte

A

Specific granules

46
Q

the most abundant granulocytes

A

neutrophils

47
Q

Neutrophils are characterized by:

A
  • Highly segmented (lobulated) nucleus - with 3 - 5 lobes
  • Poorly staining specific granules (Lightly acidophilic and small)
  • Immature cells with an unsegmented horse- shoe shaped nucleus may be found in circulation and are called band cells.
48
Q

The major function of neutrophils:

A

highly phagocytic and bacteriocidal for bacteria

49
Q

How do neutrophils attract to inflammation and release leukotriene

A

Chemotactically attracted into areas of inflammation

50
Q

Neutrophils cell surface receptors:

A
  • Fc receptors for IgG
  • Complement receptors
  • Scavenger receptors
  • Toll-like receptors (pattern recognition receptors [PRRs])
51
Q

bound to bacterial surface – thus enhancing phagocytosis (opsonization)

A
  • Fc receptors for IgG
52
Q

for complement fragment C3b which may also bind to bacterial surface and enhance phagocytosis

A
  • Complement receptors
53
Q

for various modified low density lipoproteins (polyanions) which are often found associated with (part of the) bacterial surface

A

Scavenger receptors

54
Q

for pathogenic molecules such as endotoxins, lipopolysaccharides, peptidoglycans, and lipoteichoic acids that are often arranged in predictable pathogen- associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on bacterial surfaces

A

Toll-like receptors (pattern recognition receptors [PRRs])

55
Q

The killing of the phagocytosed bacteria involves 2 major mechanisms:

A
  1. the bacteriocidal action of the contents of the azurophilic granules and specific granules which are exocytosed into the phagolysomes containing the bacteria
  2. respiratory burst in which the neutrophil takes in large amounts of oxygen and generates highly bacteriocidal oxygen radicals
56
Q

neutrophil granules (3):

A

Azurophilic granules
Specific granules
Tertiary granules

57
Q

neutrophil Azurophilic granules :

A

contain myeloperoxidase as well as cationic proteins called defensins and an antimicrobial peptide called cathelicidin (large purple)

58
Q

neutrophil Specific granules

A

lactoferrin, lysozyme. (tiny pink)

59
Q

nuetrophil tertiary granules:

A

One type contains metalloproteinases such as gelatinase and cathepsins to breakdown the extracellular matrix including basement membranes thus facilitating neutrophil migration.

A second type contains phosphatases.

60
Q

oxygen dependent intracellular killing mechanism

A

respiratory burst in which both large amounts of oxygen and glucose are taken into the cell to form reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs)

61
Q

The production of the reactive oxygen intermediates (ROIs) involves 2 mechanisms:

A
  1. The phagocyte oxidase (phox) system that generates the bacteriocidal free radical superoxide anions. (O2[−] and hydroxyl radicals ( OH) (the neutral form of the hydroxyl ion).
  2. Myeloperoxide to form hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite (bleach)
62
Q

The phagocyte oxidase (phox) system:

A

utilizes the neutrophil’s nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase complex in the phagolysosome membrane

63
Q

to transport electrons across the membrane to molecular O2 inside the phagolysosome

A

to generate the superoxide anions (O2[−]. The superoxide anion is then converted to singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radicals ( OH) (the neutral
form of the hydroxyl ion).

64
Q

found in the azurophilic granules of the neutrophil uses heme as a cofactor, to catalyze a reaction that uses hydrogen peroxide and a chloride anion (Cl−) to produce hypochlorous acid (HOCl):

A

Myeloperoxidase

65
Q

about 1,000 times more effective in bacterial killing than hydrogen peroxide. It is further metabolized to a highly toxic hypochlorite (OCl−)

A

Hypochlorous acid

66
Q

Chronic granulomatous disease

A

pathology in which the components of the NADPH oxidase complex or other elements in the phox system in the neutrophil (and macrophage) have mutated or are absent. This results in decreased killing efficiency of the neutrophils for bacteria

67
Q

The marginal pool consists of :

A

neutrophils found in the microcirculatory vessels such as arterioles, capillaries, and post-capillary venules

68
Q

main circulatory pool of neutrophils found in:

A

the larger vessels such as arteries and veins.

69
Q

Eosinophils Characterized by:

A
  • Bilobed nucleus (typically)
  • Large eosin-staining (pink/red) specific granules (note that these granules are much larger and more distinct than the specific granules of neutrophils)
70
Q

eosinphil Specific granules contain:

A

Major basic protein
Eosinophil cationic protein (ECP) – killing of parasitic worms
Eosinophil peroxidase (EPO)-killing of parasitic worms
Eosinophil-derived-neurotoxin (EDN) – killing of parasitic worms
cathepsins and collagenase which can play a role in breaking down the extracellular matrix

71
Q

are Azurophilic granules present in eosinphils?

A

yes

72
Q

does arylsulfatase breakdown leukotrienes?

A

no

73
Q

metachromatic leukodystrophy

A

buildup of the sulfatides in neurons leads to severe impairments

74
Q

eosinophils may themselves release leukotrienes from their plasma membranes and contribute strongly to promoting ____

A

inflammation not reducing it

75
Q

Functions of eosinophil:

A

kill helminthic parasitic worm
phagocytose antigen-antibody complexes
Secrete a large number of pro-inflammatory molecules including various interleukins, prostaglandins and cytokines

76
Q

Pathologies Involving Eosinophils

A
  • Eosinophilic asthma
  • Eosinophilic fascilitis (imflammation and thickening of skin and fascia)
  • Eosinophilic esophagitis
  • Eosinophilic gastroenteritis
77
Q

Basophils derive from

A

derive from the same early hemopoietic stem cell in bone marrow as mast cells

78
Q

Basophil Characterized by:

A
  • Bilobed or U-shaped nucleus(typically)
  • Large basophilic staining specific granules which often obscure the nucleus. (granules tend to be larger and more irregular in size than the granules in eosinophil)
79
Q

Specific granules of basophil:

A

Histamine
Eosinophil chemotactic factor
Heparin sulfate – which has vasodilation properties
Heparin – which is an anti-coagulant

80
Q

Basophil Function and Clinical Significance:

A

Pharmacological action of the contents of the specific granules is similar to mast cell.

81
Q

Degranulation of the basophil as in the mast cell involves binding of ____ bound to basophil surface

A

of antigen to IgE

82
Q

Agraulocytes are characterized by:

A
  • Non-lobulated nucleus = mononuclear leukocytes.
  • Absence of specific granules (may contain azurophilic granules)
83
Q

Monocytes histology:

A

*Large, Typically have a kidney bean-shaped, indented, or horse-shoe shaped nucleus
* Lightly basophilic cytoplasm containing tiny azurophilic granules (lysosomes)
* Phagocytotic vacuoles are frequently observed.
* Half-life of 12-100 hours in blood – then enter CT and differentiate into tissue macrophages

84
Q

Function/Clinical Significance of Monocytes:

A

precursor cells of some of the cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system
into tissue specific macrophages
Play an important role in immune responses by partially degrading antigens and presenting their fragments on the MHC II

85
Q

lymphocytes histology;

A
  • Nucleus - round or slightly flattened or indented on one side
  • Lightly (to moderately) basophilic cytoplasm due to free ribosomes
  • Azurophilic granules (lysosomes) may be present.
86
Q

classes of lymphocytes:

A

B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes
NK cells [Natural Killer cells]

87
Q

Platelets histology:

A

Appear as a central purple staining region called the central granulomere & an outer light- staining rim called the hyalomere

88
Q

Platelet Function:

A

Is to stop bleeding. It is the blood clotting mechanism (thrombosis).

89
Q

Central granulomere

A

blue or purple granules. α granules, δ granules (delta), and λ granules (lambda)

90
Q

Peripheral hyalomere region

A

homogenous rim around granulomere. Microfilaments and microtubules that will be involved in clot retraction

91
Q

Two sets of membrane tubules present in platelet:

A

The open canalicular system which is remnants of the platelet demarcation channels & the dense tubular system which is modified RER which can store calcium.

92
Q

The platelet contains 3 types of granules:

A

α granules
δ granules (delta)
λ granules (lambda)

93
Q

alpha granules:

A

(fibrinogen, plasminogen, plasminogen activator, clotting factors) play an important role in the initial phase of vessel repair, blood coagulation, and platelet aggregation. They contain the fibrinogen and other factors required for the clot formation.

94
Q

delta granules:

A

(ADP, ATP, serotonin, histamine, thromboxin A2). They facilitate platelet adhesion and vasoconstriction in the area of the injured vessel and are important for clot retraction.

95
Q

lambda granules:

A

(lysosomes with hydrolytic enzymes) function in clot resorption during the later stages of vessel repair.

96
Q

Blood coagulation 2 interrelated pathways:

A

1.extrinsic pathway occurs rapidly upon trauma to the blood vessel and involves the release of tissue thromboplastin (factor III) from the cells of the damaged vessel
2. intrinsic pathway is slower (minutes) and occurs when subendothelial collagen in the vessel wall is exposed

97
Q

This pathway also depends upon von Willebrand factor and factor VIII released from granules in the endothelium

A

intrinsic pathway blood coagulation

98
Q

the final steps in both blood coagulation pathways involve

A

conversion of prothrombin to thrombin, an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin monomers which form the blood clot meshwork that traps platelets and erythrocytes and acts to seal the wound in the vessel

99
Q

Final breakdown of the clot involves

A

the conversion of plasma plasminogen to plasmin (a protease which breaks down the fibrin clot) under the influence of tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) secreted from endothelial cells

100
Q

Hemopoiesis:

A

Occurs initially in yolk sac during 1st 3 months, then in spleen and liver in embryo from about 4-7 months, then in bone marrow

101
Q

All of the blood cells are thought to develop from a common stem cell:

A

hemopoietic stem cell (HSC)

102
Q

Control of hemopoiesis is mediated by:

A
  • Various transcription factors such as GATA1, GATA3, Pu.1
  • Colony-stimulating factors such as GM-CSF (monocytes), G-
    CSF (granulocytes), M-CSF (macrophage)
  • Hormones specific for blood cell development such as erythropoietin (erythrocytes) and thrombopoietin (platelets)
  • Various interleukins
103
Q

Which bone marrow is active in hemopoiesis?

A

Red marrow

104
Q

Stages of erithrocyte development:

A
  • proerythroblasts
  • basophilic erythroblasts***
  • polychromatophilic erythroblasts***
  • orthochromatophilic erythroblasts (normablasts)***
  • reticulocytes***
  • erythrocytes***
105
Q

a glycoprotein hormone that stimulates the formation of erythrocytes:

A

Erythropoietin

106
Q

erythropoietin Its synthesis is stimulated by

A

low oxygen tension in the blood.

107
Q

Granulocyte Stages of Differentiation and Maturation:

A
  • Myeloblast
  • Promyelocyte
  • Myelocyte ***
  • Metamyelocyte***
  • Band Cell***
  • Mature granulocyte***

Histo and Neuro pt 3 (3 decks)

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