HIST 123 Quiz 2 (modes of healing - yellow fever) Flashcards

Question

What steps are in the progression of modern syphilis?

Answer 1

- **Primary**: infectious, sores on site where syphilis entered body - **Secondary:** highly infectious, lesions, rash (’Great Pretender’) - rash is problem bc it can mask some other skin disease or other disease like measles or smallpox - most likely to transmit it during this time - **Latent:** (hidden stage) can last for many years - no signs or symptoms - **Tertiary:** non-infectious, can affect multiple organ systems - Especially brain, eyes: blindness, paralysis, dementia, and eventually causing death - bone deformities (bridge of nose collapses) - can be years later - usually die within 5 years of showing signs of this stage

Answer 2

- By 19th c. syphilus was far less acute but very widespread - Estimate 10% of European population infected - including well-known figures such as artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Answer 3

- Syphilis → new disease introduced to an immunologically naive population that then evolved rapidly - Unlikely that Columbus’ crew imported venereal syphilis, more likely brought back a related pathogen (non-venereal version that evolved rapidly into syphilis) - Initial infection from direct contact → was a regular practice in 14th c to kiss someone when you met them on the mouth → so if they had a coldsore → easy to transmit

Answer 4

- Columbus’ crew reported as all healthy - Not all 16th c. observers were convinced that the disease was new - Syphilis as the great imitator = misdiagnoses - eg. it has rash, pustules, fever, pain → very common symptoms of other disease - Evidence of related bacteria found in European/Asian/African population

Answer 5

- Pathogen Treponema pallisdum → the bacterium that causes syphilis. - Other species of Trepenema are responsible for other disease: yaws, pinta, and bejel (or ‘endemic’/non-veneral syphilis) - Lots of evidence of terponemal disease in Americas before 1492 and were widespread - Some evidence from Europe and Asia before 1492 (and Africa) - but we also lack textual evidence, but are cases of skeletons found that show traces of these diseases.

Answer 6

- Eg. see Victims with syphilis appealing to the Virgin Mary (1496) - Clearly widespread - Bc there were often genital sores with it → led ppl to associate it with sex - Venereal sores led to associated with sex, prostitution, and morality. - Significant 19th c. public health interventions - and state interventions of morality too - - The ways in which public health becomes linked to questions of morality

Answer 7

- Yes, it is possible. - Could have been a treponemal disease circulating in Europe that mutated - Treponemal disease → could have come in from the Americas or been multi-regional, either way tho the European militia provided solid ground for the disease to spread

Answer 8

- How humoural theory shaped medical responses - Galenic theory → pox related to humoural imbalances - Most settled on imbalance of the phlegm that was causing syphilius - Therefore treatment involved the expulsion of phlegm through sweating and spitting (from ppls bodies)

Answer 9

- Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1553) - Origin of the name syphilis (not widely used until 18th c.) - Encouraged treatment with guaiacum and mercury - linked syphilis to immorality - Philipus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim aka **Paracelsus** (1493-1581) - German-Swiss physician and alchemist - Most effective treatment of disease through use of inorganic substances found in nature (mercury, sulphur and salt) - Published a clinical description of the pox in 1530. - Promoted mercury treatments for many diseases. - Used mercury as salve applied directly to the legions or make it into a drink that ppl would drink - When you drinnk merucy (mercury poisoning) you start to produce copius amounts of saliva → which was great if you followed humoural theory and wanted to get it out of the body - Where their salivating heavily ppl thought it was working

Answer 10

- German-Swiss physician and alchemist - Most effective treatment of disease through use of inorganic substances founf in natrue (mercury, sulphur and salt) - Published a clinical description of the pox in 1530. - Promoted mercury treatments for many diseases. - Used mercury as salve applied directly to the legions or make it into a drink that ppl would drink - When you drinnk merucy (mercury poisoning) you start to produce copius amounts of saliva → which was great if you followed humoural theory and wanted to get it out of the body - Where their salivating heavily ppl thought it was working

Answer 11

- Hard wood - found in West Indies, Central and South America - Ulrich von Hutten (he himself had syohilis) - Made extract out of it and had people drink it - when administerd physican would confine the patient to a heated closed room and they would start sweating heavily → due to guaicum and hot room - Belief in efficacy of guaicum was bc the wood came from America and the disease was thought to come from America

Answer 12

- New disease, yes, but new pathogen? - less clear - pathogen that evolved v rapidly - Early modern experience of disease - Columbian exchange - movement of people, plants and animals across the world - Medicine and humoural theory - good example of how humoural theory shaped medical practices

Answer 13

- First appeared in 1485 in Southern England - Outbreaks in 1507-8, 1517, 1528-30 and 1551 - Always appeared in summer - 1528-29 only instance when reported outside England - Hamburg, Scandinavia, Low Countries - People would fall ill, difficulty breathing, sweat profusely, within 224 hours ppl either got better or died - Many did die - After 1551 it never returned in recognizable form anywhere - Was not typhus, plague, malaria or black plague - Prominent bc it killed upperclass men in particular

Answer 14

- Hypothesized it was an arbovirus (enzootic among small mammals, eg. mice) carried to people by insects - New virus attacked ppl most likely to be out in the fields → young active males → who were also immunologically naive - Disappeared after 1551 → disease that failed to parasitize humans

Answer 15

Involve vectors

Answer 16

looks at relationships between organisms, other organisms, and their environments. - Eg. a disease can be from human relations between other organisms and their environments or vice versa.

Answer 17

- Source is infectious **human** - measles, influenza, poliomyelitis (was always a human disease, did not come from animals), smallpox

Answer 18

- Source is infectious **animal** - Ebola, rabies, monkeypox, avian flu, Lyme disease

Answer 19

- Source is non-living **environment (soil, water, decaying matter)** - Anthrax, botulism, Legionnaires’ disease, gangrene

Answer 20

- Direct: smallpox, polio - from human to human - human to human relationship is least impacted by environmental change - Indirect: most forms of malaria - vector is mosquitos

Answer 21

- Zoonoses - Direct: Avian flu, rabies - eg. bitten by rabid dog or bat with rabies - Indirect: Bubonic plague, Lyme disease - vector → animal → vector → animal → human - most sentitive to environmental change bc the vector can be affected by it, the animal can be affected by it, and the humans can be affected by it.

Answer 22

- Vectors are small organisms that carry serious disease - Common Vectors - Mosquitos: carry malaria parasites - Sandflies: carry Leishmania parasites - Ticks: can carry a range of bacteria, viruses, and parasites including the bacteria that cause Lyme disease.

Answer 23

- Hippocrates (c. 460-370 BCE) described the recurring fevers and thought that they arose from drinking stagnant marsh waters (which led to an imbalance of humours) - Hippocrates: At the harvest time, when Sirius (the dog star) was dominant in the night sky, fever and misery would soon follow → seasonality - Empedocles (c. 494-434 BCE) is said to ahve delivered the town of Selinus from fever by draining a river marsh - Columella (4-c 70CE) says that marshland “breed insects armed with annoying stings, which attack us in dense swarms” and other things, “from which are often contracted mysterious disease.”

Answer 24

- From late antiquity Mediterranean Europe had Plasmodium vivax and occasional outbreaks of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum - Recap: P. falciparum causes severe disease; P. vivax not as lethal - During the Roman Empire, malaria (P. vivax) spread to lands around the North Sea.

Answer 25

- indigenous mosquito to northern Europe - Malaria parasite was able to thrive even in colder environments - Parasite also adapted to anopheles atroparvus - Once it adapted to this mosquito, it could go where they mosquito did. - Plasmodium vivax adapted to atroparvus, a mosquito which favours brackish water (salty freshwater) and does not travel far. - Appearance of malaria was highly seasonal: wet months provided habitat for mosquitos - From 9th c get Anglo-Saxon texts with references to ague. - Vivax spread with drainage of wetlands for agriculture - Changed environment is set for humans and vivax disease to thrive and spread - Highly localized - English proverb: Marsh dweller who married a woman from the hills would bury her within 3 years. - someone who didn’t live in a marshy area would have not been exposed to malaria as a a child so if they moved into a marshy area, they were more likely to get serious illness and die.

Answer 26

- Image of dragons as epidemics. - Dragons became one way ppl thought about disease. - Dragons were thought to block access to pure water - Dragons were thought to bring illness and hardship to the people. - Their slaying led to the restoration of health. - Dragon slayers made these places safe, and got rid of environmental hazards - One of these slayers was Saint Marcel, Bishop of Paris who lived in a marshy area → created representations of hazard and ill health through stories about things like dragons? - only understood dragons as a hazard to health, not as causes of malaria.

Answer 27

- Caused by Rickettsia organisms - Not to be confused with typhoid (Salmonella typhi) - “War Fever” (”Jail Fever”, “Ships Fever”) - Name from Hippocrates - Typhos = hazy and smoky - is epidemic typhus that we don’t have until the 18th c. - Described confused state, delirium → that would seen among typhus sufferers close to death.

Answer 28

Caused by Rickettsia organisms

Answer 29

1489-90. - Spanish at war with Moors over Granada (southern Spain) - Disease killed 17,000 of 25,000 soldiers (3,000 died in combat) - More ppl died of disease in wars than the conflict itself.

Answer 30

- Headaches, chills, high fever - Blotchy rash (5-6 days after infection) - appear on upper trunk then lower body (except on the face, palms of hands and soles of feet) - Delirium, confusion, death - cells that lined the blood vessel were rupturing ,causing blood clots and hemorraging - 30-70% mortality when epidemics - not as lethal as the Black Death - those who recover from Typhus are typically immune - People thought it had come from Spanish armies from the Eastern terrian (but this is a common disease narrative)

Answer 31

- Rickettsia - Rickettsia organisms that live in… - Fleas - Chigger Mites - Ticks - rickettsia that caused rocky mountain spotted fever - Lice

Answer 32

- Flea-brone typhus - Caused by Rickettsia typhi - (Rickettsia are very small species of bacteria) - Spread through contact with infected fleas, specifically through fleas, specifically through flea feces - Fleas defecate (flea dirt) when they feed and feces can be rubbed into wound, eyes, or inhaled. - Not spread from person to person

Answer 33

- Louse-borne typhus (lice) - Caused by Rickettsia prowazeki - Epidemic typhus was spread to people through contact with infected body lice - Responsible for millions of deaths in history but in the present is considered a rare disease.

Answer 34

- Different species of lice, all of which can be vectors for the spread of epidemic typhus. - People can have several hundred on their body at a given time - Don’t need a lot to have typhus - Body louse: Pediculus humanus corporis - lay egg on inside of clothes, if you don’t wash the clothes it will hatch in 7-9 days - Crab/public louse: Phthirus pubis - Head louse: Pediculus humanus capitis → as louse feet on humans they take in rickettsias from the infected human → louse poops on person and feeds on them → itchy → people scratch it into the skin. - Speaks to the importance of sanitation and hygiene in terms of body level and public health level

Answer 35

- A military processing of mercenary soldiers, followed by a winged figure of Death on horseback who is accompanied by two skeletal accomplices - Armies → poor hygiene and washing clothes limited → breeding ground for lice - people in the armies travel → spread far - environment where you have ppl in super close conditions → fleas and lice can easily jump from person to person - and not super well-nourished - large masses of unwashed ppl living in close situations and washed clothes less frequently - mercenary armies → paid to fight, don’t really listen to the people who are paying them - Spread typhus to the place where they fought and when they came back home - 3o Years Wars significant time of Typhus spread

Answer 36

- Thirty Years War (1618-1648) estimated that disease (including plague, typhus, and dysentery) killed 10 million soldiers compared to 350,000 men who died in combat. - Typhus was most significant from 1618-1630 - Also destroyed farms and fields leading to significant civilian deaths (estimates that 12% of civilian deaths were from starvation) - And drove people from rural to urban areas

Answer 37

- 16th and 17th c European armies - >made up of mercenaries, hired and somewhat controlled by governments - Violent - “Unwashed, itinerant, and promiscuous” - Typhus epidemics followed in the wake of armies - Rickettsia population seeded across Europe - Decisive role in Napoleon Bonaparte’s failed campaign against Russia in 1812. - Also significant killer in second world war in armies and concentration camps.

Answer 38

- Period beginning in 1492 (Columbia voyages) - But extended over centuries as colonizers arrived on, laid claim to, and ultimately sought to exploit Indigenous lands. - A process in which disease played a significant role. - What do you know of the role of disease as part of history of European colonization of the Americas? - Town of Flushing Netherlands, 1593 - Urban environments important to spread of disease bc ppl are packed closely together - Places where you have dense urban populations → allow directly transmitted human diseases to spread

Answer 39

- Diseases that go between humans - and do not involve vectors EG: Disease - Varicella (chickenpox) - Agent: Varicella-zoster - Influenza - Agent: Influenza virus - Rubeola (measles) - Agent: Measles virus - Mumps -> Agent: Mumps virus - Rubella (German measles) -> Agent: Rubella virus - Variola (Small pox) -> Variola virus - Scarlet Fever -> Groups A streptococci - Perussis (Whooping Cough) -> Agent: Pertussis bacillus

Answer 40

- Rhinovirus → horse - Smallpox → cattle or monkeys - Measles → cattle (some sort of rhinderpest) - Influenza → swine and poultry

Answer 41

- Animal domestication - Have pathogens that become adapted to humans - Animals disease (zoonoses) transferred to human populations - No longer zoonotic, but change in the pathogen to make it human disease - Small population: 50 people - 25 die / 25 immune - Pathogen disappears when pool of susceptibles is exhausted - so diseases may appear and disappear - But this changes when you have crowded and large human populations

Answer 42

- Large, crowded human population - A city of 50,000 people - You will start to have people who are neither dead nor immune (children): - To maintain disease in human populations needed a reservoir - Children serve as reservoir - Also “childhood” disease - Vaccination changes these dynamics - **Crowd diseases** - diseases that thrive because of dense human populations

Answer 43

- First published in 1976 - Argued that Europe, Asia, and Middle East had separate and epidemiologically distinct urban disease pools from 5000 BCE. - In places where there are different practices of animal husbandry, different animals that ppl interact with, there will be different diseases. - After 500 BCE pools began to exchange disease in a process of disease homogenization. - Via trade and military networks - Starts between Europe and Asia and Middle East - Become more similar through trade and military relationship

Answer 44

- How many ppl you need for a disease to be continually present - need a reservoir where the disease is surviving - Critical community size needed: - In an *isolated* population - Measles: 250,000 - Scarlet Fever: 48,000 - Whooping cough: 106,000 - Rubella: 151,000 - Influenza: several millions → but you never have a perfectly isolated population → how closely the interactions/ frequent they needed to be to keep that disease going. → if you had dense populations that were smaller than these populations alone and they interacted with each other regularly enough → keep it going.

Answer 45

- Large urban concentrations, but outside of urban centres, not nearly as dense as in Europe. - Different relationships with domesticated animals - Eg. dogs - But not oxen, chickens and swine in same way that you see in Europe - Trade and warfare had brought disease to and from Asia, Africa and Europe over several centuries already but had not yet crossed the ocean.

Answer 46

- Treponemal diseases - Staphylococcus aureus - Amoebic dysentery - Hemorrhagic fevers - Rabies - Hepatitis - Herpes - Pertussis (whooping cough) - Tuberculosis

Answer 47

- Measles - Smallpox - Mumps - Chickenpox - Influenza - Bubonic plague - Cholera - Diphtheria - Typhus - Malaria - Leprosy - Yellow fever

Answer 48

- Tell stories about disease from ancient times - Stories from throughout the colonial period about colonialism and disease - Eg. 1928 flu epidemic → still told among northern communities - People’s life experiences that had been shared since the 19th c that we can use to understand what happened when new diseases appeared.

Answer 49

- Appear after 1942 - Measles - Smallpox - Mumps - Chickenpox - Influenza → Directly infectious → passing from human to human → acute in that it passes or victim dies within days or weeks

Answer 50

- Infectious / communicable - involve specific agent or organism that is passed from one host to another - Directly transmitted - no intermediate host or reservoir (yellow fever, malaria, bubonic plague all involve vectors) - Acute - brief duration (days or weeks) after which victim either recovers or dies.

Answer 51

- an argument from geography - main person who advanced the idea of “Virgin Soil Epidemics” - “Virgin Soil Epidemics” - a model of disease spread and demographic impact - Biology vs. Culture - A lot of. the older ways in which historians and Europeans in particular told these stories as Indigenous inferiority to European technology and knowledge → that’s why Indigenous people got sick and died from diseases

Answer 52

- What happened when acute crowd infections introduced to Indigenous populations in the Americas who had not previously encountered these diseases - Immunologically naive - Novel pathogens → Super fast transmission → Infection much more severe → See adults also passing away IMPACTS - Killed adults - Cascading social, economic and demographic impacts - reproduction disrupted → pregnant women more vulnerable to infection → them dying - Adults typically the ones who provide food, nursing care, political roles - Disrupt food production, normal economic life - Disrupt political leadership - Loss of caregivers

Answer 53

DEMOGRAPHIC COLLAPSE - Population in the Americas (estimated): - In 1500 between 50-100 million - By 1650 between 5-10 million -> Uneven effects but in some communities 90% or more of people died

Answer 54

- Pathogens as part of a larger process of conquest and colonization - Other biological dimensions: Portmanteau biota

Answer 55

- Domesticated pigs introduced - Colonizers did not have the means to keep them fenced in → went wild - Free pigs and other livestock → part of ecological imperialism that created new niches → more similar to Europe

Answer 56

- Strengths - Helps us to recognize how other-than-human nature (pathogens, plants, and animals) can act independently in history - Offers mechanisms to help explain disproportionate Indigenous mortality (compared to mortality among European colonizers) - Did not have immunity to the disease Europeans carried with them - Not just one novel pathogen → encountering multiple novel pathogens

Answer 57

- Overstates the significance biology compared to the role of warfare, violence, seizure of land, failures of care - Ppl not only fighting disease but also fighting against occupation - Language of “virgin soils” illuminates some key cultural biases at work - Equates Indigenous ppl to the soil → as opposed to understanding Indigenous communities as historically complex - part of a long history of colonial narratives - Part of long history of colonial narratives about disease that displaced responsibility from colonizers and onto Indigenous populations - root cause is seen as Indigenous ppl - but colonialism is the key factor that drew these diseases

Answer 58

SEE SLIDES - Granted land to Portugal - Spoke to how the Catholic Churhc understood what was happening - “…therein dwell very many peoples living in peace, and, as reported, going unclothed, and not eating flesh.” - described them as an unsophisticated peoples - “In the isalnds and countries already discoverd → about coming in peace, taking control of the land, and describing/seeing the people already there as inferior. → disregard for the health and wellbeing of Indigenous people.

Answer 59

- Acute infection - after 10 days you have either perished from it or have survived - Exposure confers a high degree of immunity - Human-to-human (direct transmission) usually via respiratory system - anthropormorphus - Once established among a population, becomes a disease of childhood - Telltale scarring: pockmarks (pox from the Anglo-Saxon word pocca meaning ‘Pocket or ‘pocket’) - scars on face and hands from the pox - means at some point in those ppl’s lives smallpox had been present

Answer 60

- Voyages were longer than a month → so it was unlikely that a person would get it and bring it to - So would have to spread around the ship to keep it active for when they got there - Could be from goods → but does not lead to a lot of cases - typical thought: you would need more than 1 person on board who had not been previously exposed to the disease and someone who had it → it would also help if the voyage was shorter than average

Answer 61

- Two main variants that produce similar lesions but greatly different mortality - Variola major mortality of 25-30% - Variola minor mortality of 1% or less - Declining virulence in Europe up to 16th century. - By beginning of 17th century had become a more serious disease in Europe as well.

Answer 62

- Arrived very soon after Europeans landed in the Americas - By 1519 had killed 30-50% of population of islands of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico - Critical role in siege of Tenochtitlan (1519-21) - 1519-1520 → 5 to 8 million people died in Mexico - Smallpox arrived in October 1520 and lasted 2 months - By 1524 smallpox had spread from Mexico south to the Peruvian Incan civilizations - Preceded Spanish in 1532 (Francisco Pizzaro) - Reached Brazil in 1562 from Portugal - Further epidemics fuelled by trans-Atlantic slave trade → regular movement of ppls and slave ppls further spread disease → contributing to the mortality we see in these epidemics - Smallpox and measles moved together

Answer 63

- Incubation period is 10-14 days (from infection to appearance of first symptoms) - Long enough for an infected person to travel long distances by foot, canoe, or horseback. - They saw it in their village → left, not realizing they were sick - In early 16th century, Calusa people on the Florida coast travelled by canoe back and forth to Cuba.

Answer 64

- 1617-19 - Most likely from English or Dutch fishing boats - killed up to 2000 people, including Indigenous peoples living on the lands where English Puritan settlers would land in November 1620. - Within 2 decades there was another major smallpox epidemic in 1634

Answer 65

- Arrived in British North America and New France by ships from France - Also epidemics in New England at the same time

Answer 66

- Practiced agriculture - A lot died from smallpox in 1634 - Since agriculture was disrupted, the fields were ruined/destroyed → led to local subsitence crisis → no one heathy enough to do agriculture, hunt or gather → famine → increase susceptibility to disease and mortality.

Answer 67

- Not just one plague but successive outbreaks of new infections - Disrupted harvests and seasonal provisioning leading to hunger or famines - Some may only have weakened (eg. Influenza) but then mad epeople more vulnerable to next infection - In tropical, coastal areas malaria would also have been a new disease. - Malaria infection also undermines immune system → causes anemia → ppl more vulnerable when smallpox arrived → this is what we mean by synergistic effects - Synergistic effects. - famine and multiple pathogens make it more difficult to fight and avoid disease - Measles bad disease when it comes to synergistic effect → it basically wipes out your immune system → virus destroys existing immunity to other disease - If there are dogs present, then sometimes the dogs would end up consuming the bodies of those that perished from the epidemic (due to not burying them) → dog distemper

Answer 68

- a family of disease - Rinderpest (dated to c. 376 BCE) - Eurasia - Measles (dated to c. 900 CE) - Eurasia - Canine distemper (dated to 1735 CE) - South America - No evidence of canine distemper in pre-Columbian dogs - Hypothesis → canine distemper evolved from measles as a direct consequence of mass human measles mortality.

Answer 69

- Persisted through 17th and 18th centuries. - so never endemic BUT ppl did start to recognize it. - Indigenous communities responded - Effectively and ineffectively - Local experiences with place (avoid generalizations) - Own cosmologies - Most Indigenous Responses Involved Empirical healing in general - Herbal, surgical, spiritual responses - Observable effects - used based on whether they were effective or not

Answer 70

- Saw health and wellbeing as a collective affair - Emphasized good relations between nature and the cosmos to prevent chaos and harm Cherokee Responses to Smallpox - Sickness arising from failed relationships with the spirit world, especially thunders and winds - Diseases like lighting - About having failed to remain proper relationships - Treatments included pouring cold water on those who were sick - Sweat baths, followed by submerging in cold water - Contempory European ppl criticized these treatments based on humoural theory → thought you needed to sweat → so the after sweat being conserved in cold water was seen as bad - But head from fevers can causes brain damage leading to death so putting them in cold water could have saved lives - Sick patients would have been sent out of the village and into the fields - Seclusion was understood to be necessary for those who had blood outside of their bodies 9bc it disrupted connection with the spiritual world) - so not understanding of contagion - communal disruption with nature

Answer 71

- 7 days when village shut off - Medicine: communally prepared and used wood from trees resistant to lightening (to make broth) → since lighting was seen to be part of transmitting the disease - Could only move within village for food - If had to leave village - at midnight and had to go through woods, not follow the main paths - Other rituals, sacrifices, divination. - Ceremony would end with sacrifice, divination and a meal → made sure ppl had food - Also counselled their followers on places seen to be harbouring disease (usually places with large European settler population)

Answer 72

- Avoid communities where disease was known to circulate - Offer nursing care to those who fell ill - Control movement (eg. quarantines) to prevent the spread of contagion - Promote calmness and solidarity so that community did not experience breakdown

Answer 73

- took advantage of disease → took over places where many had died - 1800s spread of smallpox as form of biological warfare - 1763 → smallpox broke out at post - >when conference ended they gave the Indigenous people food AND some blankets from their smallpox hospital with the hopes that they would have the intended effect → killing them

Answer 74

commanding general of British forces in North America during the Seven Years War - he used smallpox to try and get rid of Indigenous people - Distributing blankets to “innoculate the Indians” → to infect them and kill them → in the context of warfare, not in the context of trade. - Amherst approved this plan and further suggestes “to try Every other method that can serve to Extirpate this Execrable Race.”

Answer 75

- **nfectious/communicable** - involve specific agent or organism that is passed from one host to another. - **Directly transmitted** - No intermediate host or reservoir (yellow fever, malaria, bubonic plague all involve vectors) - malaria had synergistic effects → cause anemia → made you more susceptible to disease - yellow fever in part transmitted well as part of environmental change → - **Acute** - brief duration (days or weeks) after which victim either recovers or dies.

Answer 76

- “Great Powers” (Spain, France, the Netherlands, Britain) struggled among themselves for control over territories, respources and people - Eg. Seven Years War (1756-63) - From late 18th c. on, some of the people of the Americas sought independence through revolutions - Included enslaved people, Indigenous peoples, and colonial settlers - Eg. American and Haitian revolutions

Answer 77

- Acute viral hemorrhagic disease - Flavivirus (genus includes West Nile virus among others) - 3,000 years old but stable for at least past 500 years - Native to Africa (East of Central) - Shows considerable genetic variety in Africa - In Americas only one version, very similar to West African variety (dated to 1537)

Answer 78

- called so bc jaundice is one of its symptoms - Symptoms: high fever, muscle pains, headache, nausea and dizziness - Lasted 3-4 days, then disappear - if they recurred, followed by jaundice (”yellow fever” → indicative of liver breakdown) and internal hemorrhage - Victims ooze blood though nose and ears, suffer delirium, and vomit up partly coagulated blood (”black vomit”) - Onset of symptoms to death ~2 weeks

Answer 79

- Young healthy adults at prime risk because of immune reaction. - bc part of what would lead the second stage to occur was a strong immune reaction to the virus → as opposed to children who had weaker immune responses. - Could have mortality about 80% in an immunologically naive population. - In order for yellow fever to develop you would need the vector (host) to survive → Aedes Aegypti → African origins mosquito - Need not only the virus to cross the Atlantic, but also need the mosquitos to cross the Atlantic and establish a population somewhere. - Female mosquitos bite humans to get blood to make eggs

Answer 80

- General epidemic 1647-52 began on Barbados (killed 6,000 or about 1 in 7 people on Island) - needed an established population of mosquitos - Went to Cuba, Yucatan, Florida, coastal ports in Central America - 20-50% mortality - Reappeared in 1690s

Answer 81

- Aedes aegypti preferred to live/breed in water vessels - Especially clay water vessels like flower pots → lay them on the dry clay, then the water would fill the thing and cause the eggs to develop - Unlike other mosquitos, they like clean, unpolluted water - Progression to adults is slower by colder temps and is sped up by hotter temps

Answer 82

- Hotter places, more aedes aegypti - Cases of these mosquitos in Quebec City and Ireland were due to a hot spell - Exist year-round in Caribbean, espeically along coasts. - Silent, don’t buzz, females bite the ankles. - More active in hotter weather - Like humans more than other animals: more likely to go from human to human - Bc they like water casts, they were good stowaways on ships - On board ships Aedes aegypti could stowaway on water casks. - 4 people per square meter, chained in pairs - 2 month journey → needed a lot of fresh water to ensure survival of crew and captives - 335 barrels of water on board for cooking, drinking, and washing - → Slave ships very effective means for transporting aedes aegypti to the americas from Africa

Answer 83

- Necessary conditions: - Population densities of non-immune people - **and** population densities of Aedes aegypti - population only transmits by mosquito, not from person to person directly - Virus cannot be transmitted person-to-person - Critical community. size does not apply to Yellow Fever bc we have mosquito populations as well

Answer 84

- 60% of population is immune can still host a yellow fever epidemic - 80% of population is immune then infected mosquitos die before biting a susceptible person. - High proportion of immunes can shield susceptible people - Logic behind present-day vaccination programs - why anti-vax sentiment is such a big problem for everyone

Answer 85

- Eg. Argentina, Brazil, Cameroon, Central African Republic People who grew up in the Yellow Fever zone in tropical areas were more likely to be immune to Yellow Fever - More likely to have encountered it when they were young (endemic population) → survived and became immune - Meant that if they encountered it as an adult, they wouldn’t develop the disease → they would be fine. - So sentiment still remains: need enough mosquitos and enough susceptibles to create an epidemic - Sugar plantations key to rise of Yellow Fever cases - Enslaved people → indentured them originally and they would work for 7 years until they paid off their enslavement → free - Sugarcane fluorished in tropical soil → merchantible commodities → scarce in Europe and worth a lot but flurosihed in other place - Wealthy landowners bought more plots of land across caribbean → established plantations → worked by people who are enslaved → ecological changes: land is cleared, deforestation → decline in bird populations that are eating mosquitos - Sugar plantations are also like cities: human communities that store lots of water → breeding ground for mosquitos - Suagr moulds → sugar put in top of the pot, molasses would drain into the pot, mollases pour out → sugar would be the food, clay pot was the home/breeding ground for mosquitos - Sugar meant population growth → more food for mosquitos - Trade from west africa and enslavement from Africa → more mosquitos - Havana → largest city from the West Indies - Every port and ship was a source of fresh water → nesting ground for mosquitos

Answer 86

- Sugar plantations key to rise of Yellow Fever cases - Enslaved people → indentured them originally and they would work for 7 years until they paid off their enslavement → free - Sugarcane flourished in tropical soil → merchantible commodities → scarce in Europe and worth a lot but flourished in other places - Wealthy landowners bought more plots of land across caribbean → established plantations → worked by people who are enslaved → ecological changes: land is cleared, deforestation → decline in bird populations that are eating mosquitos - Sugar plantations are also like cities: human communities that store lots of water → breeding ground for mosquitos - Sugar moulds → sugar put in top of the pot, molasses would drain into the pot, molasses pour out → sugar would be the food, clay pot was the home/breeding ground for mosquitos - Sugar meant population growth → more food for mosquitos - Trade from west africa and enslavement from Africa → more mosquitos - Havana → largest city from the West Indies - Every port and ship was a source of fresh water → nesting ground for mosquitos

Answer 87

- Disease of newcomers from cool climates - Recognized in early 18th c. - Military personnel mutinied, officers refused posts, chose lashes instead - Yellow fever conferred immunity - “Seasoning” → ppl who were in the tropics for a while would become “seasoned” or acclimatized to Yellow Fever - Also why white ppl were more susceptible - Some inherited immunity (but unrelated to “race”) - construction of race that supported the slave trade - 18th c. race as a biological phenomenon

Answer 88

- Constructed racialized immunities - Used to justify social and economic subordination - Lines artificially drawn by humans for political projects → where are you located in respect to the system? - Those lines that are artificially drawn are drawn around African and Black populations → they’re immunity to Yellow Fever is used to justify their enslavement → bc they can “work” without being sick. → rooted in the fact that they were born and raised in a place where they were exposed to yellow fever

Answer 89

- Yellow fever and malaria - Exposure in childhood when effects were mild, protected against more lethal encounter later in life. - Similar to crow disease, but product less of population densite than of interrelationships between people, vectors (mosquitos), and pathogens - Created hazardous conditions for outsiders with naive immune systems. - Caused the collapse and failed establishment of colonies/outsider establishments - Expedition for Germany ? → out of 2500 settlements, majority perished. - In French colony at Kourou → 6000 ppl died within a year. - Spanish - >reacted on locally appointed men → expected malaria to do its work for them: as long as the French and British recruited ppl for their armies that were not from the Yellow Fever Zone

Answer 90

- Race became linked to immunity/vulnerability to yellow fever and malaria - These links, as part of the construction of race, were used to justify slavery and the economic and social subordination of Black people in the Americas - Led to failed settlement schemes - Dairen (by Scotland) 1690s - Kourou (bu France) 1763 - Impacts on military expeditions - Spanish as favoured target after 1580. -> But Spanish recruited locals and used heavy fortifications.

Answer 91

- Bloodletting: 10-15% of blood - not effective medical treatment - rooted in humoural theory - Cinhona bark and Mercury - Chinona bark relieved malaria sysmtoms but did nothing for yellow fever - Preventative Measures - high zone or low zone - Afro-Caribbean medicine and nursing care - Most effective for wounds, sores and macroparasites but not for yellow fever. - Slaves of African descent were not permitted to practice medical treatmens - After 1770s geopolitics shift → more important is revolutionary sentiment than imperialism

Answer 92

- Slaves made up more than 90% of St. Domingue’s population in 1780s - French and British expeditionary forces sent to suppress revolution - Of 60-65,000 French sent to fight, 35-45,000 died of Yellow Fever - Successful revolution: colony achieved independence, free from slavery. - aimed to keep the British and French confined to plains, lowlands where they faced more vulnerability to yellow fever → hgih mosquito population.

Answer 93

1791-1804.

Answer 94

Smallpox in the 18th Century - 1/3 of all childhood deaths in 17th and 18th c. Europe from smallpox - Feared also because of scarring it produced - Example: Chester, England — 1774 - 1200 cases out of a population of 14,700 - 202 deaths - Affected people of all ranks: - eg. King William III of England lost his father, mother, and wife all to smallpox in the later 17th century; Emperor Highashiyama of Japan died 1710, aged 34. - Smallpox went from milder to more virulent in medieval England → increased in severity in 17th and 18th centuries. - Fear of smallpox laid in potential of mortality and scarring - when you got the disease you would get the pustules on face and hands and elsewhere and it would leave severe scars

Answer 95

- Smallpox - orthopox virus (genus) - first disease for which a vaccine was developed. - Cowpox, monkeypox separate species - But overlapping immunities

Answer 96

some of first refrences to this from China 16th century texts

Answer 97

- Would take matter out of smallpox legions (the pus) and then take it and place it in the nostrils or the skin of the person they were trying to variolate. - Goal was to provoke a mild attack of the disease so that the person gets sick, recovers and has immunity to it going forward - and/or would have a much milder cases if they got it later on - People would also intentionally expose their children to ppl who had smallpox in hopes that they would have a mild case and going forward be immune - In Europe it was largely a folk practice -> this changed in 18th c. because the disease became more serious.

Answer 98

- Physicians who advocated for and practiced smallpox variolation. - Caroline, Princess of Wales (1683-1737), asked for experiments on variolation, after which she chose variolation for her own children. - Tested variolation on 6 prisoners → got sick and recovered and 6th showed no symptoms (probably lied and had it when he was younger) → either way showed variolation was a success - Also tested on orphans

Answer 99

- Cotton Mather (well-known minister: learned of the practice from Onesimus an enslaved black man) and Onesimus - Cotton Mather (in Boston) was a religious leader and surprisingly supported variolation - In Europe and the colonies

Answer 100

- Physicians, community leaders - Because some people would get smallpox and die from it. - Benjamin Franklin originally opposed variolation until his son got it and died → then became pro variolation (bc he thought he should have tried and done sth more to proect his son) - Part of it was that they thought it was Gods will whether you got smallpox and died of it → thought clergymen were being hypocritical

Answer 101

- Initially opposed to variolation - Argued that it was hypocritical for clergy to promote variolation (went against God's Providence/Will) - Then changed his mind after the loss of a son in 1736 to smallpox.

Answer 102

- James Kirkpatrick practiced variolation in the 1740s. - Claimed he had a safer method. - Physicians, surgeons, apothecaries detailed that variolation should be preceded by bleeding, purging, and proper diet to bring the body’s humours into balance. - In some respects variolation wasn’t like 20th c vaccination campaigns that actually had significant effects on mortality

Answer 103

- “Pox Americana” - Mexico City to Portage La Loche (today: Canada) - killed a lot of ppl in what is now Manitoba and Saskatchewan - Continental pandemic - Coincided with American Revolution (1775-82)

Answer 104

- People fighting for the revolution → poor hygiene, wounded, malnourished (weak immune systems), close quarters - The British hired German soldiers who were coming from Europe → much more likely to be exposed to smallpox as children - Those born and raised in the Americas → many children of colonists were more vulnerable to smallpox than the Europeans they were fighting against - Meant that George Washington’s soldiers were more vulnerable to smallpox than the British -> Politics to differential immunity

Answer 105

- American Revolution (1775-1783) - Washington required his troops to be variolated. - SEE IMAGE - During the American Revolution, George Washington also imposed a “vaccination mandate” - Said there was more to fear from smallpox than the enemy army - In general, the variolation served to protect the Americans

Answer 106

- 1749-1832 - practicing physician - was also an amateur scientist - approached natural knowledge in a general way - realized those who got cowpox did not usually contract smallpox - Disease went from the cows to the dairymaids → those who milked the cows saw inflamed spots appear on different part of the hands and on the wrists - Cowpox made person kind of sick and had bumps on wrist, but not sick like with smallpox. - Published his studies - Began to practice experiments: - with ppl who are marginal - orphan → gave him cowpox and then tried to variolate him with smallpox → when the boy didn’t get any sickness with smallpox after being sick with cowpox, this confirmed his hypothesis. - At the time this was perceived as potentially benefiting those children - Did these experiments on his own children as well bc he had successful attempts - Vacca - latin for Cow - Could take mild, non-scarring disease (cowpox) and it would give you immunity to smallpox - Vaccine was lymph material from those already infected with cowpox → inject it into the skin - Not universally well-received by everyone at the time - Faced opposition from ppl who didn’t like variolation in the first place; opposition also from variolators (stealing their business with the vaccination)

Answer 107

1838-39 - Vaccination and variolation - Jenner said vaccination would confer lifelong immunity - By 1809 it was recognized that you would need to get multiple vaccinations and that it would not have lifelong immunity - Every time smallpox broke out, they would try to encourage ppl to get vaccinated - Widespread dissemination of vaccine - Via Hudson’s Bay company to Canada - Outside of military conflict, it was in the HBC’s best interest to not have smallpox spread → in the self interest of trade with the Hudson’s Bay Company they did try to provide indigenous ppl with some sort of healthcare, including providing vaccination. - Encouraged isolation to avoid spread - Lymph could be preserved by drying and the ivory points used as needles were easy to transport - could vaccinate one person and use that person to vaccinate others - some success in 1830s, but lymph was not always working by the time it crossed the Atlantic/made its way there - other challenges: opposition and support; sometimes indigenous ppl and their families would hear about vaccinations and come into the trade posts to seek them out; in other stories mercenaries would have to chase them down to vaccinate them

Answer 108

“That a medicine chest shall be kept at the house of each Indian Agent for the use and benefit of the Indians at the direction of such agent.” - Vaccination program/healthcare for Indigenous ppl from the HBC

Answer 109

- Eventually lead to eradication of smallpox in 20th c. - Smallpox vaccination campaigns, vaccination mandates, and anti-vaccination sentiment - Long-standing, historical, shared themes.

HIST 123 Quiz 2 (modes of healing - yellow fever) Flashcards

(134 cards)