Henry VIII's Foreign Policy 1530-1547

Question 1

In 1530 why was England a relatively minor power in Europe

Answer 1

France and Spain were both under the rule of the empires and had greater resources at their disposal to pursue an active and aggressive foreign policy but because most of the time these resources were directed towards each other, it gave England a significant role as a potential ally for either side

The failure of henry VIII to resolve his ‘Great Matter’ by diplomatic means emphasis the extent to which England remained a relatively minor power in Europe

Question 2

Why was England important in 1530

Answer 2

It was a strong enough power to effect a major change in the international situation if the king chose to enter into an alliance

It’s geographical location was significant so if allied with Charles, it could encircle France and if allied with France, it could help cut off Charles’ links with the Netherlands

Question 3

Why were the Netherlands important to England

Give an example of when a truce was arranged

Answer 3

Because in Antwerp they had the main market for England’s most important export, woollen cloth and for this reason the rulers of both countries normally had to maintain good enough relations to allow the trade to carry on

For example in 1528, when England was at war with emperor Charles, a truce was arranged that allowed the trade between England and Antwerp to continue

Question 4

In the years after 1529 what dominated English foreign policy and how

Answer 4

Henry’s divorce dominated it

Embassies were sent to Rome to put the kings case for a divorce and others were sent to the French king who was dissatisfied with the terms of the treaty of cambrai 1529 and was happy to find an ally against the emperor

Question 5

What did henry and Francis do as Francis wasn’t happy with the terms of the treaty of cambrai

Why wasn’t it effective

Answer 5

They signed a defensive alliance in 1532 and there was a meeting at boulogne and Calais arranged for the two kings

The relationship lacked firm foundations since their aims were different. Francis wanted to recruit a new ally for when he took up arms against the Emperor and was working to win the Pope over and establish a marriage alliance between his son Henry and the popes niece Catherine de Medici

The year 1533 saw a growing division between henry and Francis as henry felt betrayed by the Marseilles Treaty with the Pope and Francis was angered by Henry’s marriage to Anne Boleyn and aggressive attitude towards the Pope

Question 6

What kind of negotiations were made in 1533

Answer 6

Negotiations were set in motion for some kind of alliance between England and the schmalkaldic league so henry could reinforce his position

Question 7

What was the schmalkaldic league

Answer 7

A group of Lutheran princes who had repudiated the Pope and were hostile to the emperor

Question 8

To resolve his great matter what did henry have little alternative but to do

Answer 8

Breaking with Rome

Question 9

Why was pressure on Henry’s position reduced in 1536

Answer 9

The death of Catherine of Aragon and the execution of Anne Boleyn open up the possibility of a renewed alliance with the emperor

The renewal of fighting between the emperor and Francis I reduced the potential danger of Englands isolated position

Question 10

Why was the relief of pressure on Henry’s position short lived

Answer 10

In 1538 his position had again weakened

Charles and Francis one again buried their differences in the Treaty of Nice and they agreed to sever connections with England

Pope Paul III published a bull of excommunication deposing henry and thereby absolving English catholics from the need to obey their ruler

The Pope sent Cardinal Reginald Pole to France and Cardinal david Beaton to Scotland to rouse support for a catholic crusade against henry

Question 11

What did henry and Cromwell do since the threat of invasion seemed so real in 1539

Answer 11

In early February a survey of the kingdoms defences was ordered and work started on an extensive campaign of building and refurbishment of fortifications, largely financed from the proceeds of the Dissolution and often using building materials from the plundered monasteries

Henry made a king tour of the new defences

The navy was put on a war footing

In may 16,500 soldiers marched through london and paraded before the king at a review at his palace of st james

Question 12

What negotiations happened in 1539

Answer 12

Negotiations were opened with the Duke of Cleves on the possibility of a marriage with one of his daughters.

In some ways it seemed like an ideal alliance. The duke who was in dispute with the emperor, had, like henry, broken away from the Roman Catholic Church but he had not adopted Lutheranism

An agreement was signed in October and the marriage between henry and Anne of cleves took place in January 1540

Henry went through with the marriage because at the time Francis and Charles seemed threateningly close to each other

Question 13

What was happening while the military preparations in 1539 were being set in motion

Answer 13

Diplomatic efforts were also being made to cope with the threat of invasion

In January 1939 henry had again sent ambassadors to the schmalkaldic league hoping to dissuade them from coming to any agreement with the emperor and asking for delegation to come to England for further talks

The delegation duty arrived but the talks came to nothing and the passage of the Act of Six Articles in June showed that any religious settlement was impossible

That act in itself has been seen as an attempt to show Europe that a campaign against England on religious grounds was unjustified

Question 14

Why did the prospect of a European crusade against Henry prove to be an illusion

Answer 14

In February 1540 the duke of Norfolk went on an embassy to France and henry could be reassured that Francis and Charles were once more drawing apart and assuming their more usual hostility towards each other.

Question 15

What happened in 1542 as hostility mounted between Charles and Francis

Answer 15

Henry was once more seen as a desirable ally in any approaching conflict and it was Charles V who came to a deal with henry.

In June 1542 they agreed on a joint invasion of France to take place the following year

Question 16

What did henry have to do before his committed his forces to an invasion of France in 1543

Answer 16

He has to make sure of his own safety at home and in particular this meant the security of his northern border

An unsatisfactory attempt at improving relations with Scotland failed when the Scottish king james didn’t attend a meeting with henry. As a result the duke of Norfolk led an army on a raid across the Scottish border. In response a Scottish army invaded England (battle of solway moss)

Question 17

When and what was the battle of solway moss

Answer 17

1542

A result of the duke of Norfolk leading an army on a raid across the Scottish border to which the Scots responded by invading England, only to have its 10,000 men routed by an English force of 3,000 at solway moss

A number of leading Scottish nobles were captured and shortly afterwards in December, james V died, leaving his 6 day old daughter Mary as queen

Question 18

What were the treaties of Greenwich and when

What happened to them

Answer 18

1542

They called for peace between England and Scotland and arranged for a future marriage between Mary Queen of Scots and Prince Edward

By the end of the year the treaties had been rejected by the Scottish parliament

Question 19

What happened in Scotland in 1544

What effect did it have

Answer 19

In 1544 the Earl of Hertford led an expedition into Scotland which resulted in the burning of Edinburgh, the devastation of much of the Lowlands and the strengthening of anti English feeling in the country

If the aim had been to further the English cause in Scotland, it has failed but in the more limited terms of keeping the Scots too occupied to intervene in the English invasion of France, it has some success

Question 20

What happened in Calais in 1544

Answer 20

An army of 40,000 went over to close where they were joined by henry

On 14 September boulogne surrendered and four days later henry made a triumphant entry into the city and immediately began ordering the strengthening of its fortifications

Question 21

What was Charles V’s response to boulogne falling to the English

Answer 21

He felt henry had not provided enough support for his campaign and made peace with Francis on the same day that boulogne fell to the English

Henry was now alone in his war against France and negotiations started almost immediately for a peace settlement but were stalled by Henry’s insistence that he should keep boulogne and that France would sever ties with Scotland

Question 22

What happened in July of 1545

Answer 22

The war with France was continued into English waters when a French fleet sailed into the Solent but caused little damage behind the affront to English honour and the sinking of the Mary Rose

A landing on the Isle of Wight was easily realised and the French attempt to recapture boulogne failed

Question 23

What was signed in June 1546 after both England and France were ready for peace

Answer 23

The treaty of Campe

Henry was to keep boulogne for the next eight years but it was then to be given back to the French in return for the payment of £600,000 and the French promised to resume the payment of an annual pension to henry worth £35,000 a year

Question 24

Was the last years of Henry’s foreign policy worth it?

Answer 24

In terms of material costs, England paid a high price for very little gain.
War was getting to be increasingly expensive because of inflation and the greater number and more up to date weapons that were required

Apart from taxation, henry had access to the money he had made from the church but this was not inexhaustible

The expenses of these years led to the debasement of the currency which transformed a sound currency into one widely regarded with suspicion

However, henry was fulfilling his role as a warrior king, leading his troops in war and the prestige he gained was sufficient reward for him

Question 25

What problems did henry have with Ireland

Answer 25

Gerald Fitzgerald, ninth Earl of Kildare was the dominant Irish nobleman and managed for a time to play a complex double game in which he was both an English courtier and servant of the crown and the most powerful of the Gaelic chiefs

However it proved difficult to sustain this ambiguous role especially after the revival of the Geraldine- Butler feud and the relationship between Kildare and the king broke down

Henry’s problem was that he found it difficult to govern Ireland with Kildare and without him he found it impossible

Question 26

What did kildares’s dismissal in 1534 lead to

Answer 26

A major rebellion led by his son Thomas Fitzgerald, Earl of Ossory which was only suppressed with difficulty and considerable expense

Question 27

Why did Ireland become an increasing drain on the crowns resources

Answer 27

The attempt to refashion Irish government in 1534 by bringing it more directly under English control failed utterly.

It required royal government through an English born deputy, supported by a substantial military presence

Question 28

How was Ireland being an increasing drain on the crowns resources worsened

Answer 28

By the scale of resentment amongst the Gaelic lords

Two of these nobles, Con O’Neill and Manus O’Donnell invaded the Pale in 1539

The government eventually regained control and tried to pacify Ireland by establishing it as a separate kingdom in 1541, imposing English law and creating counties out of the Gaelic lordships

In return some of the Gaelic lords received peerage titles and the Irish were to be entitled to the same legal protections as their English counterparts.

However, the government lacked the resources to follow through the reforms, there was no residual Irish loyalty to the English crown and in any case after 1534, the relationship between England and Ireland had become even more complex because of the religious differences which began to emerge between the two