Henry VIII: foreign policy Flashcards
Overall…
1509-1514 = young H8 follows aggressive foreign policy driven by desire for war with Fr.
1514-1526 = no clear theme - alliances made and broken
1527-1540 = defensive policy because of power of Charles V and the Great Matter.
1540-1547 = return to aggressive driven by desire for glory against Fr.
Early aims
- win military glory - esp Fr.
- make Eng major player in international affairs.
FP 1509-1514
-Began with conflict of interests between H8 and some councillors inherited from H7.
-Councillors sought a continuation of peace.
-H8 signalled intentions to pursue war by commissioning translation of life of H5 - famous warlike predecessor.
1510 - Holy League
H8 entered alliance with Sp, HRE and Pope AGAINST Fr ->
H8 used by father in law Ferdinand & HRE Maximillian.
1512 - 1st invasion of Fr
H8 sent 100,000 soldiers to SW Fr but defeated as Sp failed to support ->
Achieved nothing, H8 = naïve - used by Ferdinand as diversion while Sp attacked Navarre.
1513 - 2nd invasion of Fr
H8 led force to NE Fr, won Battle of Spurs, captured towns of Tournai and Therouanne ->
Little more than a skirmish but claimed in propaganda as stunning victory.
1513 - Battle of Flodden
James IV of Scot (allied with Fr) crossed border with substantial force, defeated by smaller Eng army led by veteran soldier Earl of Surrey, James IV + much of Scot nobility killed , throne = infant James V with H8’s sister Margaret as regent ->
Happened whilst H8 in Fr, did little to build on advantage from Flodden.
Results 1509-1514
- huge drain on Eng finance
- trouble in Yorkshire were resentment against taxation - almost rebellion.
- lost Fr pension (Treaty of Etaples which H7 won).
- insignificant gains in Fr - Tournai sold back to Fr 1519.
- failed to take advantage of weakened Scot position.
- possible further campaign of 1514 abandoned when Ferdinand & Maximillian made peace with Fr, H8 = isolated.
+ peace with scot till1542.
+ W showed skill by recovering lost Fr pension, negotiated marriage alliance between H8 younger sister Mary & Louis XII (king of Fr), short lived.
FP 1514-1526
-inconsistent
-H regarded Francis of Fr as personal & political rival
-Charles V accession as HRE & Sp king changed balance of power in Europe - affected H8’s actions in fp.
-Eng = minor power - could not compete with Fr & Sp, H8 run out of money to continue warlike foreign policy.
-H8 over estimated Eng power -> W forced to make policy based on false assumption.
-Auld Alliance (Fr & Scot) remained strong - Eng relations with one affected relations with other.
1517 - Treaty of Cambrai
Charles V (new king of Sp) and HRE Maximillian agreed to Treaty of Cambrai with Fr ->
H8 left dangerously isolated.
1517 - Arrival of Duke of Albany in Scot
DoA = heir presumptive to Scot throne (first in line BUT could be displaced by new heir with better claim), mber of Fr nobility, appointed Regent to Scot throne ->
Attempt by Francis I (Fr) to undermine Anglo-Scot relations, & H = alarmed as see DoA as Fr agent, threat minimised due to divisions amongst Scot nobles, H8 shown to be incapable of exploiting divisions/weaknesses in Scot AGAIN.
1518 - Treaty of London
Personal achievement by W, origins in peace negotiations between Eng and Fr but widened to become non-aggressive pact between Eng, Fr, Spain & HRE, friendship between Eng & Fr continued - Eng returned Tournai & Fr paid Eng pension as compensation & Fr agreed to keep Albany out of Scot = peaceful border between Eng & Scot ->
W emerged as leading diplomat in Western Europe, eventual conflict suggests treaty = meaningless but NOT IN SHORT TERM because:
1. diplomatic coup for W
2. led to Pope appointing W as papal legate.
W at height of power and prestige as H chief minister.
1520 - Field of Cloth of Gold
Meeting between H8 & Francis I, lasted over 2wks in Fr near Calais a town held by Eng, pavilion set up for each king - lavish event, H beaten by Francis in wrestling match, event cost H8 approx. £15,000 ->
Reinforced positive relation between Eng & Fr but nothing really achieved diplomatically, Fr were concerned re growing power for Charles V, more willing to be on good terms with Eng.
1521 - Treaty of Bruges
Conflict arose between Francis I & Charles V, W negotiated treaty with Charles ->
Shows inconsistency of fp.
1522 - War with France
Eng armies invaded N Fr in 1522 & 1523 ->
Gained very little but proved costly - parliament reluctant to grant extraordinary revenue.
1525 - Battle of Pavia (Italian wars between Fr & Sp)
Charles V defeated Fr at Pavia, H8 suggested joint Eng & Sp invasion of N Fr to gain territory, no surprise Charles does not agree, controversy over Amicable Grant = no support for this ->
Fact that H8 tried to benefit from Charles’ successes = naïve
Consequences:
1. H8 had to back down = ego bruised.
2. W domestic prestige never really recovered.
1526 - League of Cognac
End of Eng 7 HRE/Sp alliance - W & H8 change to be more pro-Fr, Eng join league of cognac with Fr and Pope in attempt to counterbalance Charles’ power in N Italy ->
Not good time to be against Charles V bearing in mind H8’s ‘Great Matter’.
Results 1514-1526
+ 1520 Treaty of London for W
- 1517 Treaty of Cambrai - dangerously isolated.
- Field of Cloth of Gold - nothing achieved diplomatically.
- 1522 War with Fr - costly, achieved little.
- 1525 - controversy over Amicable Grant, no support for Fr invasion, H8 had to back down.
- 1525 onwards - great matter now had complications in fp, not even skilful W could resolve. This was not good time to be on poor terms with HRE, eventually would bring down W, make H object of suspicion to whole of Catholic Europe.
FP 1527-1540
-Clear that Charles V was the dominant player in Europe, made Henry’s attempts to annul his marriage with Catherine more difficult as he was Catherine’s nephew.
-Marriage & alliance became unnecessary when relations between Charles & Francis broke down, making H8’s position more secure.
1527 - Sacking of Rome
HRE sacked Rome leaving Pope a virtual prisoner of Charles V ->
Made great matter even more difficult to achieve.
1527 - Treaty of Amiens
H8 & W forced by weak position to make alliance with Fr against HRE, W put pressure on Charles V by imposing a trade embargo with Burgundy BUT Charles retaliated which led to unemployment & social problems in Eng, W had to back down ->
W trying but failing to restore Pope’s diplomatic independence.
1529 - Peace of Cambrai
Charles V defeats Fr and peace is agreed in which Fr have to give up ambitions in Italy ->
Reinforces papacy’s political dependence on HRE, Charles V now dominant, fall of W - failed to solve Great Matter.
1523 - French Alliance
H8 made alliance with Fr in attempt to improve position and put pressure on Charles to support H8’s marriage annulment, break with Rome horrified Catholic powers ->
Tactic failed, alliance = not v. useful as Francis pursued marriage alliance between son and Pope’s niece, Catherine de Medici.
1536 - Pressure on Henry reduced
C of A died, AB executed = possibility of new alliance with HRE, Fr & HRE renewed fighting reduced threat to Eng.
1538-9 - Henry’s position weakened
Charles & Francis made peace treaty at Treaty of Nice - agreed to sever connections with Eng
Papal Bull passed - deposing H8, Eng Catholics did not have to obey ruler.
1539 Pope sent envoys to Fr & Scot to gather support for Catholic crusade against Eng ->
H8 responded by:
1. Marrying German Protestant Anne of Cleves
2. Seeking alliance with Protestant League of Schmalkalden.
3. Part of reason for issuing 6 Articles 1539 - reassure Catholics.
Ireland
Early reign: few concerns, Eng in control of Pale.
-Earl of Kildare = Fitzgerald, dominant Irish nobleman. Geraldine - Butler feud started again and relationship between Kildare & H8 broke down. Kildare dismissed.
-1534 - major rebellion led by Kildare’s son. Difficult & costly for H8 to suppress.
-H8 attempted to bring Ireland more under Eng control, failed as needed Eng diplomat & military, Ireland became a drain on resources.
-1539 two Irish lords invaded Pale, eventually controlled.
-1541 govt tried to pacify Ireland by establishing as separate kingdom under Eng law, creating counties out of Gaelic lordships & granting Irish nobles peerage titles & legal protection.
Results Ireland
- Govt lacked resources to follow through with reforms.
- No Irish loyalty to Eng crown.
-Situation became more complicated because of religious differences between Irl & Eng.
FP 1540-1547
1540s saw H8 return to aggressive fp towards Fr in particular.
1542 - Battle of Solway Moss
Eng’s invasion was a success, Scots defeated - James V killed, heir = 1wk old Mary Stuart ->
Scottish position seemed hopeless.
Rough wooing
H8 chose to use diplomatic pressure on Scot and focus on invasion of Fr, this Scot policy became known as rough wooing as he sought to marry Prince Edward to Mary Stuart.
1543 - Treaty of Greenwich
Prince Edward & Mary formally betrothed, Scot parli did not ratify to treaty ->
Led to H8 ordering Earl of Hertford to raid Edinburgh, Leith & St. Andrews.
Criticisms of Scottish policy
- neglected opportunity to secure policy by military force after victory 1542.
- failed to listen to warnings from Eng ambassador about Scot hostility.
- Hertford’s raids simply a retaliation, no strategic objective and just alienated Scots further.
1544 - 3rd French War
H8, in alliance with Charles, invaded Fr, himself headed at large army despite serious health problems, (shows H8’s main concern = Fr), H8 captured Boulogne (massive achievement) but Charles made separate peace with Fr.
1545 (France)
Matters worse for H8, Francis sent troops to Scot for invasion, Eng defeated at Ancrum Moor in Scot, Fr force landed at the Isle of Wight ->
Fr didn’t recapture Boulogne and invasion of N Eng didn’t happen.
1546 (France)
Peace was agreed as both sides ran out of money.
Effects of France 1540-47
- H8 paid high price for final pursuit of glory.
- Unable to fund war from extraordinary revenue, he sold much of Crown estate, borrowed large sums of money and debased coinage thereby significantly increasing rate of inflation.
- Toxic legacy for Edward - following military glory for himself proved to be complete disaster.
H8’s aims in FP
- Personal motivation = military glory
-gaining land in Fr e.g. 1513 & 1544-6.
-attempting to outdo Francis I.
-conquest of Scot. - Securing the succession
-5 of marriages and break with Rome revolved around succession.
-married Cath of A to have son with powerful relatives.
-annulment’s importance 1525-34 only because he needed a son. - Alliance with Protestants & control of Ireland
-alliance = only important briefly 1538-39
-Irl = reaction to events 1534 & 1539. - Trade
-least important, unlike H7, acquisition of money only really mattered as a means of achieving goals, did not actively discourage trade, wars interfered with trade and taxes, later on inflation, put burden on his people.
Securing the succession
-Need to secure succession led to number of Acts of Parliament, each of which repealed (replaced) its predecessor.
-Even birth of Edward 1537 did not solve succession problem as H8’s failing health made it likely that Edward would still be a minor when he succeeded to the throne.
1534 - Succession Act
-Declared Mary (daughter of Cath of A) illegitimate.
-Stated that succession would rest with Anne’s children
1536 - Succession Act
-Followed Anne’s execution for treason.
-Declared Elizabeth (daughter of AB) illegitimate.
-Stated that in absence of a legitimate heir the king could determine the succession by will or letters patent; this would have allowed H8 to legitimise his illegitimate son, the Duke of Richmond, but Richmond died 1536.
1544 - Succession Act
-Re-legitimised Mary & Elizabeth (Edward first in line having been born 1537).
-Affirmed H8’s right to determine succession by will or letters patent.
Dec 1546 - Henry’s will
-Confirmed succession of arrangements.
-Stated if Edward, Mary & Elizabeth died without children the heirs of H8’s sister Mary, Duchess of Suffolk, should succeed.
-Set up a Regency Council to act on Edward’s behalf.
