Henry VIII (1509 - 1547) Flashcards
1
Q
What was the issue with Henry VIII upon rising to the throne?
A
- He was not raised to be a King, he became Prince of Wales after the death of his older brother Arthur
- He therefore lacked government / public affairs experiences
- This can be argued that he disliked the business of government as he found it both tedious and painful
2
Q
What did Henry inherit from his father? (4)
A
- Money
- Unpopular mechanism for extracting money
- Peaceful foreign policy
- Conciliar style of government
3
Q
What were his 3 aims in the first years of his reign?
A
- Ensure status/recognition among European monarchs through marriage
- Establish himself as a warrior king through success in battle
- Re-establish the role of the nobility
4
Q
Why were the nobility happy over the ascension of Henry VIII over Henry VII?
A
- Scrapped many bonds/recognizances
- Abolition of Council Learned in the Law
- Executions of Richard Empson and Edmond Dudley
- showed that Henry was distancing from his father’s regime and ensured his own popularity among the nobility as many felt victim of the previous regime
- Revival of an aggressive foreign policy mean that it would restore their traditional outlet of pursuing military glory by aiding the king through providing armies
5
Q
Why were they disappointed over the French campaign?
A
Their political domination was not fulfilled as Henry decided to pursue the interests of Thomas Wolsey to organise the French campaign
6
Q
How did Henry VIII’s reign leave an enduring mark on English history?
A
- Political transformation - broader use of statute law by Parliament increased its significance as well as reinforcing royal supremacy
- Religious transformation - England became a Protestant country, shifted away from Roman Catholicism
- Wealth transformation - Henry’s aggressive foreign policy diminished the Crown’s wealth as well as the dissolution of monasteries decreased the wealth of the Church
7
Q
Why did Henry VIII end his father’s style of government (end of conciliar government)
A
- Henry did not like the lack of support of his father’s senior councillors who did not support a war with France
- Surrounded himself with likeminded young courtiers, reinforced suspicion over his father’s senior councillors
- Impressed by the organisational skills of Thomas Wolsey
8
Q
Who did he appoint to conduct the business of government?
A
Thomas Wolsey - he became royal almoner upon his succession and then behaved more like a chief minister due to his exceptional organisational abilities
1514 - Archbishop of York and cardinal
1515 - Lord Chancellor
1518 - Papal legate (outranked the Archbishop of Canterbury and had control over religious orders in England)
9
Q
What was Thomas Wolsey’s main concerns?
A
- Legal system - as Lord Chancellor he was in charge of overseeing the legal system (he had the right to preside over the chancery)
- Formulation of domestic policy
- Political decision making
10
Q
What was the relationship like with the Privy Chamber?
A
The Privy Chamber collectively distrusted Wolsey
Wolsey sought to neutralise their influence
11
Q
What was the issue with the Court of Chancery?
A
Wolsey used the courts to deal with problems relating to enclosure, contracts and land left to others in wills
The issue was that it was becoming too popular and justice was slow since it became clogged up with too many cases
12
Q
What was Wolsey’s most distinctive legal contribution?
A
Court of Star Chamber - from 1516, he used it to increase cheap and fair justice
13
Q
What did Wolsey do in terms of finance?
A
- He substantially changed the way in which subsidies were collected - instead of using local commissioners to access taxpayers’ wealth, he set up a national committee which he headed to avoid the risk of some being over-generous to the local nobility
This allowed him to have a fair assessment of nation’s revenue base which helped raise money to fund Henry’s war in France
14
Q
What was the Amicable Grant?
A
1525 - attempt to raise more momey for war - in theory it was to be freely given gift to the king from his subjects - but in reality it was a heavy tax, levied without Parliament’s approval - this lead to widespread resistance and almost rebellion
15
Q
What was the Eltham Ordinances?
A
1526 - Eltham Ordinances was introduced to reform the finances of the Privy Council - he also reduced the number of Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber for royal household expenditure purposes
16
Q
What did the King’s Great Matter lead to?
A
In the short term - downfall of Wolsey as he couldn’t solve the divorce between Catherine and Henry
In the long term - establishment of the royal supremacy suggested by Thomas Cromwell
17
Q
How did the Great Matter arise?
A
Henry’s fear over not producing a strong, male heir as Catherine was growing old
He was considering of legitimising his illegitimate son, Henry Fitzroy but fell madly in love with Anne Boleyn and wanted to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine
18
Q
What was the initial argument brought up by Henry to get his divorce + reaction of Catherine?
A
- Book of Leviticus contained a prohibition on a man marrying his brother’s widow - Henry claimed that therefore he was free to marry Anne
However Catherine argued that the marriage had not been formally consummated and therefore the biblical ban did not apply
19
Q
What happened between the papacy and emperor
A
1527 - Pope Clement VII was essentially held captive / prisoner under Emperor Charles V who did not want to see his family insulted (he was Catherine’s nephew)
20
Q
What happened at Wolsey’s first attempt in solving the Great Matter?
A
Being the personal representative of the Pope, he brought Henry before a fake court to “accuse” him of living in sin with Catherine - Catherine refused to accept the court’s verdict and in accordance with canon law (church law) appealed to the Pope
21
Q
What happened in July 1529
A
After two years of fruitless diplomacy (1527 - 29), Pope sent Cardinal Campeggio to hear the case along with Wolsey
The hearing began in London in mid June and on 30th July he gave his verdict - he failed to give Henry his annulment
22
Q
Was Wolsey’s fall sudden?
A
No - he was already unpopular following the 1523 subsidy and imposing the Amicable Grant
He was arrested on 4th November 1530 and was tried and executed found of being guilty of treason - but he died before being being axed
23
Q
Who was Thomas Cromwell?
A
- principal secretary to Henry VIII
- suggested Henry to place himself as Supreme Head of the Church of England
- He was the mastermind behind the dissolution of the monasteries
- the role of royal households diminished
- By 1532, he was the king’s chief minister
24
Q
How did Henry divorce Catherine and break with Rome?
A
The divorce and break with Rome were accomplished through:
The use of statute law (Acts of Parliaments), whose supremacy superseded to that of canon law (the laws of the Church)
25
How was Cromwell's task made easier?
The Church began to experience weaknesses:
1. Criticisms of humanism (Colet and Erasmus)
2. The Church's claims to supremacy was challenged in 1528 by lawyer who asserted the superiority of English law over canon law
3. Thomas Cramner and Edward Foxe looked to justify the king's divorce on the basis of historical and legal principles
4. Henry received expert opinion from various continental universities, some of which were in his favour
26
Outline the timeline of Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn
William Warham was replaced by Thomas Cramner as Archbishop of Canterbury
25th January 1533 - secret marriage between Henry and Anne after Henry finds out that Anne is pregnant in December
May 1533 - Marriage to Catherine is annulled by Archbishop Cramner
7th September 1533 - Elizabeth is born, Henry is disappointed as it did not solve the problem of succession
27
What series of measures does Cromwell do to achieve the break from Rome and establish royal supremacy (5)
1. The Act in Restraint of Appeals (April 1533) - declared that the monarch possessed an imperial jurisdiction which was not subject to any foreign power - this meant that Catherine could not appeal to Rome against her marriage annulment
2. Act of Succession (April 1534) - declared marriage to Catherine as void, denial of validity of Henry's marriage to Anne was treasonable, oath taken to affirm an individual's acceptance of the new marriage
3. Act of Supremacy (November 1534) - gave legislative force to the royal supremacy, King becomes Supreme Head of the Church of England, this act effectively achieved the break from Rome
4. Treason Act (November 1534) - punishment by treason expanded where anyone found to negatively speak of the king would be punished
5. Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown (November 1534) - increased the financial burden on the clergy and strengthened royal supremacy
28
What had happened by 1534?
The clergy had recognised the role of the king
Parliament's role as law making body had been strengthened
Henry now had possessed full control over the Church and religious policies would be based around the monarch
29
What was the purpose of the Dissolution of Monasteries and when did it start and finish?
Increase the wealth and therefore power of the Church
This was mainly done to raise money to finance his aggressive foreign policy
It started in 1536 and was completed by 1542 - vast amounts of Church land was confiscated by the Crown where the property was either granted away or sold off
30
What caused the downfall of Anne Boleyn?
She was responsible for helping push the king for a more Protestant direction
Relations between Anne and Cromwell broke down - Cromwell felt insecure about his relationship with the king and left that his career was threatened
He therefore persuaded Henry that Anne's flirtatious manner had let to adultery - causing her to be executed in May 1536
31
What caused the downfall of Cromwell?
By 1540, his influence was declining
The catalyst was his failure to manage the king's martial affairs satisfactorily - Henry was left angry over the prospect of his marriage to Anne of Cleves as the marriage was quickly annulled
He was accused of treason and heresy at a Council meeting and was executed in July 1540
32
Why did Cromwell want Henry to marry Anne of Cleves
He tried to boost relationship with the League of Schmalkalden, an organisation of German princes and free cities within the Holy Roman Empire who advocated for reformer Martin Luther and rejected the Catholic church
33
What was the aftermath of Cromwell's downfall
It helped to shift the balance of power as Henry's government became more of a councillor style of government rather than dominated by one figure
34
Timeline of French invasion
1512 - First invasion of France, Henry sent 10,000 men to southwest France under Marquis of Dorset (failure as he was used as a diversionary tactic by Ferdinand while he successfully conquered Navarre)
1513 - Battle of Spurs, claimed in propaganda to be a stunning victory yet achieved little gains as well as capture of Tournai and Therouanne
35
What were the problems by 1513 in Henry's military success?
September 1513 - Anglo-Scottish conflict (Battle of Flodden)
- very costly war (Henry was forced to liquidate assets inherited by father to pay for it)
- caused similar problems like in 1489 (Yorkshire rebellion) as people were forced to pay taxes
- French pension was lost
- Tournai was eventually sold back to French
36
How did Wolsey manage to help?
- 1514 campaign abandoned following the peace treaty of both Maximilian and Ferdinand with France
- Recovered the Etaples pension
- Marriage alliance between Mary (younger sister) and Louis XII
37
What was the issue of Henry's approach to foreign policy
1. England was a relatively minor power compared to major powers of France and Spain
2. Henry overestimated English power
3. The alliance between Scotland and France remained strong - clashes between France and England meant that tensions with Scotland also rose
38
What was the 2 major consequences by the end of 1514 when Henry ran out of money to continue warlike foreign policy?
1. Unable to exploit the weakness of Scotland follwoing the death of James IV at Flodden
2. He sought peace with France through the marriage alliance but the marriage was short lived following the death of Louis XII the next year
39
What was the issue of the Treaty of Cambrai
- Signed in August 1529
- It left England diplomatically isolated following the peace treaty between new monarchs Francis I (France) and Charles V (Spain)
- France agreed to end their involvement in the War of the League of Cognac (Italy)
40
Why was Francis unable to undermine the Anglo-Scottish relations?
The heir presumptive, Duke of Albany, was the member of French nobility but any threat by Albany was minimised due to the poisonous divisions among Scottish nobility
41
What was Henry's main problem in foreign policy?
He was unable to exploit the divisions and weaknesses within Scotland
42
Why was the Treaty of London signed?
It was prompted by the Pope who had a desire to unite a Christian front against the threat of the Ottoman Turks
43
What is the significance of the Treaty of London?
Signed in 1518
Ended England's isolation
It was diplomatic coup for Wolsey where he he was appointed as papal legate over England due to the Pope needing a united Christian front
England gave Tournai in return for the French to keep Albany out of Scotland (ensured more peaceful relations on the Anglo-Scottish borders)
44
Why did Henry switch sides to Charles V and signed the ... following the Field of the Cloth of Gold
Treaty of Bruges signed in August 1521 after conflict arose with Francis and Charles
1. Henry could improve his relations with the Pope - anxious to reduce French control over northern Italy
2. He believed that he might gain more territory in France
3. Part of the deal included a marriage alliance between Charles V and Princess Mary
45
What happened after the Treaty of Bruges?
English armies invaded northern France in 1522 and 1523 - campaigns were costly but gained little territory, Parliament was reluctant to grant extraordinary revenue to cover the costs
46
What was the significance of the Battle of Pavia in 1525
1. Spanish crush the French, Francis I was held captive for a time by Charles
2. Henry tried to launch a joint invasion of northern France to achieve territorial gains but Charles refused
3. The controversy over the Amicable Grant showed the lack of public support over campaign
4. This caused Henry's ego to be bruised as well as resentment towards the emperor when Charles did not sign the marriage contract with Princess Mary
5. Wolsey's domestic prestige never recovered from this episode
47
How did the Great Matter have complications on Henry's foreign policy and what did it show about England?
It made Henry an object of suspicion to the whole of Catholic Europe
Failure to solve the Great Matter by diplomatic means emphasised the extent of England remaining as a minor power in Europe
48
What were they forced to do as a result?
Make anti-Imperial alliance with France in the Treaty of Amiens in 1527
49
What did Wolsey try to do that backfired?
Wolsey tried to pressurise the emperor by imposing a trade embargo with the Burgundian lands but Charles retaliated which created widespread unemployment and social problems in England - forced Wolsey to back down
50
What achievements did Charles do that further showed England as a minor power in Europe?
Charles victory over the French at the Battle of Landriano in 1529 and dominance over the Pope in the Peace of Cambrai in 1529 showed that Henry's martial issue could not be solved diplomatically
51
Why was Henry's position in the Great Matter among the Catholics allievated and how can he strengthen his own position?
Charles V was primarily concerned over the threat of the Ottoman Turks to Catholic Europe
Henry tried to reinforce his position by making an alliance with the League of Schmalkalden
52
Why was the pressure of his situation reduced by 1536?
1. Death of Catherine of Aragon and execution of Anne Boleyn - opened possible renewal alliance with the emperor
2. Renewal of fighting between Charles and Francis - reduced the danger of England's isolated position
53
Why was Henry in a weak position in 1538?
1. Treaty of Nice between Francis and Charles - agreed to sever connections with England
2. Pope Paul III published a bull deposing Henry and thereby absolving English Catholics from the need to obey their ruler
3. Pope sent envoys to both France and Scotland - rouse support for a Catholic crusade against England
54
Why did Henry's position was more secured in reality?
1. Distrust between Francis and Charles
2. Six Articles Act of 1539 - intended to reassure Catholic opinion in England
3. Marriage alliance with Anne of Cleves - having an alliance with the League of Schmalkalden was a useful policy tool - marriage broke down being politically pointless after the fall out between Francis and Charles
55
What was the issue with Ireland?
Henry found it difficult to govern Ireland with Kildare, but without him it would be impossible
His dismissal in 1534 lead to a major rebellion by his son which was only suppressed with difficulty and considerable expense
The attempt to bring it more into direct English control failed miserably
Ireland was an increasing drain on the Crown's resources due to funding military presence - government lacked the resources for reform
56
Why did the relationship between England and Ireland become more complex?
This was following the break from Rome as religious differences began to emerge between the two countries - to make matters worse, there was no residual Irish loyal to the English Crown
57
What happened in the final years of Henry's foreign policy?
Henry had to revert on his aggressive foreign policy seen in the early years of his reign due to the struggles of the Break from Rome - he decided to invade both Scotland and France in his final years
58
What happened in Scotland?
They saw immediate military success after the invasion in 1542 where they won the Battle of Solway Moss
It resulted in the death of James V which saw the young Princess Mary become Queen - the position seemed hopeless for Scotland
59
What was Henry's main interest?
Pursue military glory in France
60
What did Henry try to do in Scotland?
"Rough wooing" - sought to marry the young Prince Edward to Mary to secure unified nation but this was rejected by the Scots due to widespread suspicion of English intention and request that Queen Mary would be brought up in England
61
Why is Henry criticised for his policy over Scotland?
1. Neglected opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had the opportunity following the Battle of Solway Moss in 1542
2. Failed to heed Sadler's warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions
3. The ordering of the Earl of Hertford to raid parts of Scotland was a matter of retaliation that had no thought to possible strategic objectives and further antagonised the Scots from England
62
What did Henry do before invading France?
He agreed on an alliance with the emperor but this failed as mid invasion he had enough and signed a separate peace treaty with Francis
63
Why did matters get worse for Henry in 1545?
Francis sent troops to Scotland to reinforce possible invasion of England across Scottish borders
English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor
Separate French force landed in Isle of Wight
Henry's flagship, the Mary Rose, sank
64
What was the aftermath of the French invasion
Both agreed to end the conflict as it was expensive from both sides to finance - peace was agreed in 1546
Henry had to pay the price himself as he was unable to get extraordinary revenue - this meant he had to sell most of the Crown's estate, borrow large sums of money and debase the coinage - this increased the rate of inflation
65
What happened to the Duke of Buckingham?
He was executed in 1521 due to treason after Henry believed that he was very suspicious - this indicated Henry's ruthless treatment of the nobility in his early reign
66
Example of noble raising army for the king?
Earl of Shrewsbury raised over 4000 men for the invasion of France in 1513 - nobles' function to recruit men was still crucial
67
What had happened to the standards of living for the commoners?
Due to the rise in the rate of inflation, this did have a drop in real incomes as well as the Amicable Grant decreased income further (which was resented)
68
What was The Laws in Wales Act of 1536?
1. Divided Wales into shire counties
2. Gave Welsh shires direct representation at the House of Commons
3. Brought Wales into the same legal framework as England
69
What was the issue with Scotland?
Difficult to police - both borders had a reputation for lawlessness and violence was common
70
What was the issue with appointing a local noble and why was it not ideal to appoint any outsiders?
They would exploit his office to enhance his own power at the king's expense
Appointing outsiders was tough because they had limited ability in influencing local people
71
Who was a notable person that was executed following their rejection of the royal supremacy?
Sir Thomas More, he was a Humanist and Chancellor
72
Why were the monasteries important?
Their function acted as an important feature of appeal (before the Reformation Church)
73
When did the dissolution of the monasteries happen and what also happened during that year?
1536
Royal injunctions of 1536 sought to attack traditional practices of Catholicism (e.g. holy days, pilgrimages and veneration of relics)
74
Why did the religious upheaval such a long lasting social consequence? (3)
1. Huge amount of land was removed from the Church and taken by the Crown - increased the size and wealth of landowning gentry - by 1547, almost 2/3 of monastic land was sold off or granted away
2. Loss of education provisional
3. Loss of business and employment opportunities
75
What happened following the Amicable Grant in 1525?
Rebellion, it was geographically widespread (strongest resistance occurred in north Essex and south Suffolk) - many refused to pay
Unemployed cloth workers found it impossible to pay the levy
76
What comprised as the largest rebellion during Tudor England?
Lincolnshire Rebellion and Pilgrimage of Grace - started in early October 1536 in Lincolnshire
77
What was different in the Pilgrimage of Grace rebellion?
The rebels were far more radicalised and more hostile towards the gentry because of the strength of their grievances against their landlords - class antagonism prevailed
78
What were the issues with the Dissolution of the Monasteries (3)?
1. Loss of charitable and educational functions - as well as providing the usefulness of its facilities and services
2. Possible loss of parish churches
3. Fear that the north would be impoverished by monastic land falling to the southerners
79
What were some of the secular motives of the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Elton argued that the rebellions of 1536 was primarily orchestrated by the councillors who supported Catherine of Aragon (who died in January 1536) where their primary motive was to restore Princess Mary as heir - these courtiers were able to exploit the religious and financial concerns of northerners to pure pressure on the King
80
What happened to the Lincolnshire rebellion?
It quickly collapsed following the strong forces of the Duke of Suffolk
81
What did the Duke of Norfolk do?
Norfolk was tasked by Henry to control the north - he quickly suppressed the rebellion where he declared martial law and hanged 74 rebels
82
Aftermath of the Pilgrimage of Grace
- number of rebel leaders (e.g. Darcy), gentry and heads of monastic houses were brought to London where they were tried and executed
- Henry's handling over the rebellion was terrible, he ignored the increased resentment (which he wished not to hear) and he was fortunate that Duke of Norfolk was able to show common sense and flexibility
- This event did not slow down the pace of religious reform/change
83
What happened to England's trade?
Increased volume of English trade - continued rise in cloth exports as well as hides and tin
However, it was counterbalanced through the rise in imports of wine - suggested spending power of the nobility increased
84
Which three areas saw the greatest growth in cloth industry?
1. West Riding of Yorkshire
2. East Anglia
3. parts of the West Country (e.g. Devon)
85
Why was the economy healthier, more expansive and optimistic during this reign?
1. Population began rising significantly from 1525 as well as a decline in the rate of mortality
2. From the 1520s, agricultural prices rose significantly - increase in farming incomes - increased the practice of engrossing (merger of farmers to make single agricultural unit, improved efficiency and lower cost of production)
3. Debasement of the coinage - created a short term artificial boom in 1544 to 1546 - but long term cost to living standards
86
What is the evaluation of the point above? (i.e. why was the economy struggling)
1. Bad harvests (1520-21, 1527-29) resulted in significant increases in food prices - they almost doubled under Henry VIII
2. Real wages began to decline for many - this process was intensified over the issue of debasement
3. Assessment for subsidies indicated considerable urban poverty - over half population of Coventry were recorded as having no personal wealth
4. Growing unemployment and rise of homelessness (due to engrossing)
87
What was the issue of the rise in population?
The poor became poorer as it drove the prices of food up due to putting a strain on supply of food as demand was rising above supply
Society was becoming more polarised - causing the undermining of social responsibility and good lordship as wages were stagnating
88
