Help Me Term 2 Crash Flashcards
What does the thoracic wall enclose?
The two pleural cavities
What’s in between the pleural cavities?
The mediastinum, including the pericardial cavity with the heart
Are the left and right pleural cavities closed off?
Yes
Function of the thoracic wall?
To protect the contents, and follow movement of reso
What bones are part of the thoracic wall? (State 3 things)
Sternum,
T1-12 thoracic vertebrae posteriorslly,
Ribs 1-12 laterally
What bones articulate with the manubrium at its superiolateral angles? )
The clavicle and the 1st costal cartilage
There are 2 remember
Name all ‘4’ bones that articulate with the manubrium
Clavicle
1st costal cartilage of 1st rib
2nd costal cartilage of 2nd rib
Sternal body
What does ‘I ate ten eggs at 12’ mean
I 8 10 EGGs AAT 12
IVC = T8
EsophaGus and vaGus at t-10
Aorta, azygous vein and thoracic duct at t12
Is the body fed under systole or diastole?
Systole
When is the heart fed?
Under diastole, not systole
What name is given to the joint with the clavicle, 1st costal cartilage, and manubrium?
Sternoclavicular joint
What type of joint is the sternoclavicular joint
Saddle synovial joint
_
_
__
=
_
Joints on the sternum?
Saddle synovial (clavicle)
Primary cartilaginous (1st rib)
Secondary cartilaginous (sternal angle, at manubrium)
Synovial plane (2-7 ribs)
Primary (xiphisternal joint)
Saddle, primary, secondary, synovial plane, primary cartilaginous (x)
What is the name given to the median notch former by the superior border of the manubrium?
Jugular notch
At what vertebral level is the copious process usually located?
Tenth thoracic vertebrae
At what vertebral level is the sternomanubrial joint located?
Between t 4 and 5, the intervertebral disc
Or level of second costal cartilage
Facets for 2nd costal cartilage. With which parts of the sternum do these articulate?
Manubrium and the body
What are the typical ribs
3-9
Typical Sophia, you’re 3 (I’m three, I’m three, that makes 9)
So typical ribs are 3-9
Does the head of a rib articulate with the sternum or the vertebral column?
Vertebral column
How does the head of a typical rib articulate with the vertebral column?
There are two facets on the head of a typical rib: one facet articulates with the body of the numerically corresponding vertebrae, and one facet articulated with that if the superior vertebra. And it’s the number of the rib, and the body above too.
Where is the neck of a typical rib?
Near the head, which articulates with the vertebral column
Where is the tubercle?
In the typical rib, near the head, and superiorly located
Is the angle more posteriorly or anteriorly located?
Posteriorly
What 3 neurovascular structures lie within the costal groove?
In this order:
VAN
Vein, artery, nerve
Which ribs are true ribs?
1-7
Which ribs are false ribs?
8-10
Which ribs are floating ribs?
Ribs 11-12
How would you describe the 1st rib?
An atypical true rib
What’s unique about the articulation of the first rib?
It only articulated with a single vertebrae, T1
Where in the body is the scalene tubercle located? What’s it for?
On the first rib
Near the head
For attachment of the anterior scalene muscle of the neck
What’s the scalene muscle used for?
An accessory respiratory muscle in forced inspiration
Where specifically in the body is the groove for the subclavian artery located located?
On the 1st rib. Posterior to scalene tubercle. (Closer to head, closer to v column)
Where is the whole body is the groove for the subclavian vein located?
On the first rib, anterior to scalene tubercle…
An extra cervical rib may develop from what transverse process?
C7
Demi facets on the vertebral body articulates with what?
Rib, a demo facet is basically half a facet, cuz the other half is on the vertebrae below. So if articulates the head of the rib.
Where does the facet on the end of the transverse process articulate with?
Tubercle of the rib
On the end of the pedicle is a superior articular process (carrying on, on the transverse process)What does that articulate with?
The inferior articular process of the vertebral body above
What’s the costal facet
The facet for articular part of the tubercle of rib
A single typical rib articulates with two vertebral bodies and one vertebral transverse process. Which vertebral t process is this?
The vertebral t process of the same number of the rib (bottom one)
Eg rib 5 articulates with the body of vertebra t5 as well as the body of vertebra t4, and the transverse process of t5
Which ribs are most commonly fractured, and what does this lead to?
Ribs 5-10
End of a fractured rib May then perforate the pleura resulting in a pneumothorax.
Symptoms of a pneumothorax due to fractured rib?
Severe localised pain, mediated through the intercostal nerves located above and below and concomitant dyspnoea (difficulty in breathing).
What is the thorax bound by superiorly or inferiority?
Superiorly- Thoracic inlet
Inferiorly- diaphragm
Which bones form the boundaries of the thoracic inlet?
Manubrium , clavicle, first ribs
Which bones/costal cartilages form the boundaries of the thoracic outlet?
Xiphoid process of sternum
Costal cartilages of ribs 7-10
Ribs 12 and 11
T12 vertebrae
Which ribs/costal cartilages form the costal margin and the sub costal angle?
Joined costal cartilages of ribs 7-10, forming the costal margin
Which costal cartilages are directly attached to the sternum?
True 1-7
Indirectly attached to sternum through attachment to preceding costal cartilages?
False ribs, 8-10
Why does not much volume increase on the thoracic cavity result from contraction of the intercostal muscles in the newborn during inspiration? What is used instead?
Because the ribs aren’t like in an adult. In an adult, the ribs lie obliquely in an anterior inferior plane.
So diaphragm used instead
How do we number the intercostal space
With the rib lying superior to it
Mmmm where do the nerves and veins and arteries run in the intercostal spaces
Costal groove and at the superior border of the inferior rib
How do the nerves, arteries and veins run in the intercostal space?
In the costal groove, VAN.
The collateral branch looks like this:
Nav.
It’s the opposite
The external and internal intercostal muscles run at what angle to each other?
Right angle
Innermost is the same as the internal
Between what intercostal muscle layers are the intercostal veins, arteries and nerves located?
Between internal and innermost
Where in relation to the borders of a rib do you think a chest drain needle should be inserted into the pleural cavity to avoid damaging the (main) intercostal nerve?
Superior border- don’t insert too close to the inferior border of a rib, the intercostal nerve is the lowest lying structure in the intercostal space
True or false: dermatomes correspond with the intercostal spaces at and below the T2 dermatome
True
Where do the intercostal nerves from the T7-12 spaces project serially onto?
The anterior abdominal wall, therefore correspondingly named dermatomes
Define a dermatome
An area of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve , or a group of spinal nerves
Where is the T1 dermatome?
Area of skin on the upper limb supplied by the T1 spinal root
Medial half of the forearm
May vary slightly in its boundaries, and overlap with other dermatomes such as C5, C6, T2 and T3
Do thoracic nerves carry motor or sensory?
Both, they’re mixed
What prevents the lungs and pleura from ballooning out between the ribs during resp movements
The intercostal muscles
True or false?
Each structure forming the intercostal neurovascular bundle bundle in a particular intercostal space gives off a small collateral branch
True
Where do the collateral branches run, and what do they supply
Above top of each rib to supply pleurae and periosteum of the ribs
The collateral nerve is much smaller than the main intercostal nerve, t or f
T
At the sternal angle, dermatome C4 lies immediately above t2 instead of t5. What explains this disappearance of t5-c1 from the chest wall at this level?
On the arms
Dermatome over sternal angle?
T2
What dermatome overlies the nipple area
T4
What dermatome is over umbilicus?
T10
What dermatome is over the inguinal region?
L1
What is lymph essentially and why is it leaked
Plasma/ extra cellular fluid leaked from capillary beds due to high hydrostatic pressures
Has lymphatic drainage been demonstrated here:
Cartilage
Eyes
Inner ear
Brain
Spinal cord
No
Name the lymph node group in root of the upper limb
Auxilary
Lymph node group at the root of the lower limb
Superficial and deep igninual
Lymph node group at: pectoralis muscle/ breast
Pectoral
Lymph node group at: bifurcation of trachea in thorax
Tracheobromchial
Lymph node group at: hilum of the lungs
Bronchomediastinal
Lymph node group at: root of arteries in the abdomen and pelvis
Lumbar/pelvic
Lymph node group at: superficial and deep in head and neck
Superficial cervical and deep cervical
Lymph nodes would not be clustered around large veins
False
Why does the breast need good lymphatic drainage?
Cuz the composition is glandular surrounded by extensive adipose tissue
What does most of the breast lymph (>75%) drain to?
Anterior (pectoral) group of axillary lymph nodes
The axillary tail of the what penetrates the floor of the what
Axillary tail of the breast
Penetrates the floor of the axilla
How many attachments does the diaphragm have
4
What are the 4 attachments of the diaphragm?
lumbar vertebrae and arcuate ligaments (connecting to the crura)
costal cartilages of ribs 7-10 (directly to ribs 11-12)
xiphoid process of the sternum
How many hiatuses in the diaphragm are there
3
What does the diaphragm do during coughing, vomiting and defecation?
Assists in raising intra-abdominal prrssure
Where in the body is the left and right crus
Part of the diaphragm
Right or left dome lies more superior during normal expiration and why?
Right
Presence of the liver
What part of the diaphragm moves during inspiration?
Only the central part
Why does only central part of diaphragm move during inspiration?
Because the periphery, as the fixed origin of the muscle, attaches to the inferior margin of the thoracic cage and the superior lumbar vertebrae
During exp, how high are the domes
Right = as high as 5th rib
Left= as high as 5th intercostal space
What bones is the central tendon attached to?
Nothing bruv
Nada ma bro
What does the central tendon resemble?
A wise cloverleaf
Apparently
Is the central tendon more anterior or posterior
Anterior
What is the superior aspect of the central tendon fused with?
Inferior surface of the fibrous pericardium
What is the sternal part of the diaphragm
2 muscular slips that attach to the posterior aspect of the xiphoid process of the sternum
What’s the costal part of the diaphragm?
Wide muscular slips that attract to the internal surfaces of the six costal cartilages and their adjoining ribs ON EACH SIDE
Which costal cartilages and ribs are the diaphragm attached to?
Inferior 6
What’s the lumbar part of the diaphragm like?
Arises from 2 aponeurotic arches called the medial and lateral actuate ligaments and the three superior lumbar vertebrae
Where do the crura of the diaphragm arise from?
The anterior surfaces of the bodies of the superior three lumbar vertebrae, anterior longitudinal ligament, and the IV discs
Difference in where the left and right crus arise from
Right = first 3 lumbar vertebrae
Left = first 2 lumbar vertebrae
What part of the diaphragm is the fruits part of
A lumbar part
The phrenic nerve is located posteriorly and anteriorly in the diaphragm, t or f
T
Phrenic nerve is efferent fibres, not afferent
False
Both
C3,4,5 keeps the diaphragm alive
Yah that’s where the phrenic nerve arises from
When the diaphragm contracts it does what
Decends
To which tendon is the diaphragm attached?
Central tendon
To which costal cartilages is the diaphragm attached?
Inferior 6
To which part of the sternum is the diaphragm attached?
Xiphoid process
To which vertebrae is the diaphragm attached?
1-3 left
1-4 right
Through which part of the diaphragm does the inferior vena cava pass and what does this mean?
Passes through the central tendon.
So when the diaphragm contracts during inspiration, it widens and dilates the IVC. = facilitates blood flow to the heart through this large vein.
What’s a hiatus hernia example
The abnormal profusion eg oesophagus into upper part of stomach, into thorax through tear or weakness in the diaphragm caused by frequent hard coughing or heavy lifting etc or if diaphragm already weak.
Spinal cord injury immediately above the phrenic nerve spinal roots will do what to diaphragm
Paralyse. So artificial ventilation.
Normal inspiration is passive
False
Expiration is passive
Damage to the phrenic nerve = what (2- therefore)
Result in paralysis of the ipsilateral dome of the diaphragm
Intercostal muscles and nerves work to compensate and maintain some respiratory function.
Larynx is upper or lower
Upper
When does the larynx become the trachea
C6
Pharynx-epiglottis-larynx. But one of these is more anterior to the other. Which one
Larynx is is more anterior to the pharynx
Where does the lower respiratory tract receive its motor innervation? Sympa and para sympa please
Through sympathetic fibres originating in the upper Thoracic spinal levels- via plexus located at termination of the main bronchi
Parasympathetic from the vagus nerve
Where does the lower respiratory tract receive sensory fibres?
From both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibres.
So upper thoracic spinal levels , via pulmonary plexuses located at the termination of main bronchi (sympathetic)
Para sympathetic = vagus nerve
LRT arterial supply?
From bronchial arteries, arising from thoracic aorta and intercostal arteries
LRT heinous drainage?
Drains to azygous venous system, branches off that as tiny little bronchial veins
The trachea starts just superior to the cricoid cartilage
False
Inferior
Approx how many rings comprise the trachea?
16-20
Name the muscle that completes the tracheal ring posteriorly
Trachealis muscle
Are the vagus nerves anterior or posterior to the trachea
Posterior
The keel shaped cartilage ring at the bifurcation of the trachea is called the what
Carina
The main part (main part only I’m referring to) of the vagus nerve is anterior or posterior to the sympathetic trunk?
Anterior
The tubular organ lying immediately posterior to the trachea is the
EsophaGus
Lying immediately lateral to the trachea in the neck are which arteries
The common carotid arteries
Which nerve lies immediately lateral to the trachea on both sides
The vagus nerve
In what grooves are the recurrent laryngeal nerves lodged?
They are branches of vagus that supply motor and sensory to the larynx
The tracheo-oesophageal grooves
Which are between the trachea and the oesophagus
They are on the left and the right
Nerve supply of diaphragm (2)
Phrenic c3,4,5
Peripheral parts of the diaphragm also receive their sensory nerve supply from the intercostal nerves (lower six/seven AND the sub costal nerves
The lower intercostal nerves to periphery of diaphragm are only afferent (sensory)
True
Afferent = sensory or motor?
Snesory
Efferent = sensory or motor?
Motor
The nerve lying immediately lateral to the trachea on both sides is the vagus nerve, true or false
Trye
At what vertebral level does the trachea divide into the two main bronchi?
Between t4/5
Which lung is the lingula
Left
Where’s cardiac impression
On side on left lung
Where’s aortic impression
Left lung, shaped like arch
Root is the area on the medial surface, hiking are the structures
No
Root = structures collectively
What 4 structures that make up the root of the lung
Pulmonary artery
Superior and inferior pulmonary veins
Main bronchus (small bronchial vessels immediately surrounding it)
How is the root enclosed?
It’s enclosed within the area of continuity between the parietal and the visceral layers of the pleura , the pleural sleeve
Hilum of lung definition
Area on medial surface of each lung at which the structures forming the root enter and leave
AREA ON MEDIAL SURFACE
Do the lungs extend above the 1st rib and clavicle?
Yes, covered by cervical pleura
The right lung is shorter and broader than the left. Which abdominal organ gives rise to this asymmetry?
Heart
What’s sibson’s fascia/ suprapleural membrane?
Fascial membrane that covers the lung apex just above the thoracic inlet
Purpose of sibsons fascia (2)
To provide rigidity to the thoracic I let and prevents distortion due to changes in intrathoracic pressure during expiration
What lung features would you look at to ‘side’ a lung eye day whether left or right? (3)
Left Hilum houses just one bronchus, while the right Hilum houses two.
Also horizontal fissure
No of lobes
Right lung horizontal fissure follows the course of what rib
4th
Parasympathetic supply to the lungs comes from what nerve
Vagus
What does the vagus nerve do to the lungs (3)
1) stimulates secretion from bronchial glands
2) contraction of the bronchial smooth muscle
3) vasodilation of the pulmonary vessels
Azygous vein is close to the right or left lung
Right
Describe nerve supply of the lungs completely
Derived from pulmonary plexuses:
Para = vagus nerve (secretion of bronchial glands, contraction of bronchial smooth muscle, and vasodilation of the pulmonary vessels)
Sympa = from sympathetic trunks, relaxation of bronchial smooth Yh muscle and vasoconstriction of the pulmonary vessels
Visceral afferent = conducts pain to sensory ganglion of the vagus nerve
Contraction of the bronchial smooth muscle and vasodilation of pulmonary vessels- is this para or Sympa
Para
How many lymphatic plexuses are there in the lungs and name
2
Superficial = lung parenchyma
Deep = structures of the lung root
Lymphatic drainage of lungs goes where?
Tracheobronchial nodes- at carina
Where do the tracheobromchial nodes drain?
Thoracic duct on the left, right lymphatic duct on the right
Why can a surgeon remove segments of the lung without adversely affecting neighbouring segments
Because each lung segment has its own individual blood and air supply
How many segments in each lung
Right = 10
Left = 8 or 9
3 rules regarding root of the king in terms of arrangement:
1) pulmonary artery up top on left (definetely most superior on the left, maybe/maybe not on the right)
2) superior lobar bronchus bigger on right, (and maybe more superior)
3) pulmonary veins most inferior and anterior
How many lung surfaces are there, and what are they
3
Costal
Medial
Diaphragmatic
Medial surface of lung has what
The Hilum
The pulmonary circulation is deoxygenated blood only
No
It’s also ox as well as deox
Where do the bronchial circulation arise from
Arteries arise from aorta and 3rd right posterior intercostal artery
Veins drain into azygous system
How many bronchial arteries supply the lung?
2 for left, one for right
What’s the pleura
Double layer of serous membrane that surrounds each lung
how many layers of the pleura are there
2 bro
Separated by pleural cavity
(Remember that the pleural cavity is the space occupied by Lung- that’s what clinicians call it)
What gives the lung surface a shiny surface
Visceral pleura
How are the layers of pleura different histologically
Not
Which layer of pleura is sensitive to pain?
The parietal pleura only because the visceral pleura hasn’t got sensory innervation
Which nerves supply pain sensation to the pleura
The parietal pleura is sensitive to pain because it is richly supplied by branches of what
Somatic intercostal and phrenic nerves
Irritation of the mediastinal and central diaphragmatic areas of the parietal pleura results in pain that is referred where
Root of the neck and over the shoulder (c3-5 dermatomes)
What’s the visceral innervation type
Autonomic (motor and visceral afferent)- reached in company with the bronchial vessels
Where do the nerves of the lungs and visceral pleura derive from?
Pulmonary plexuses located anterior and posterior to the root of the lung
Para from vagus nerves
Sympa from sympathetic trunks
So the nerves that supply pain sensation to the pleura are what?
Somatic intercostal and phrenic nerves
What pleura lies on the superior surface of the diaphragm
Oarietal
What the apical pleura aka
Cervical pleura or Cupulq
What’s the cervical pleura
It’s the pleura that’s covering the apex of the lungs in the root of the neck
Where’s sibsons fascia in relation to the cervical pleura
Sibsons fascia is immediately above the cervical pleura
Is the cervical pleura separate to the parietal pleura?
No
What will happen when pleural fluid increases due to inflammation/infection
Lungs will collapse
What will happen as a result of air gaining access to the pleural space
Perhaps as result of penetrating wound or fractured rib
= lungs collapse = pneumothorax
What’s a pleural reflection
Where the parietal pleura lining one surface of the chest wall changes it’s direction to line another surface e.g. from inner surface of the ribs, onto the superior surface of the diaphragm
What’s the costodiaphragmatic reflection
Parietal pleura changing direction
How does the diaphragm work- you must explain
Contraction = vacuum, = pulls air into the lungs
What are pleural recesses
Where at pleural reflections, there is more space between the two pleura
Name the two pleural recesses
Costodiaphragmatic recess
Costomediastinal recess
Why are the pleural recesses clinically useful?
For needle aspiration of excessive accumulation of fluid in the pleural space- known as a pleural effusion
The parietal pleura is sensitive to pain, pressure, temperature and touch
True
FINALLY what is the nerve supply of the parietal pleura
Phrenic nerve supplies mediastinal and diaphragmatic
Parietal pleura in the periphery is supplied by the lower 6 intercostal nerves
Innervation of visceral pleura
Only autonomic innervation for stretch
Through pulmonary plexus , Sympa and para from vagusv
Where is the pulmonary plexus from
Vagus
CT scan shows trachea has recently bifurcated, as has the pulmonary artery.
C4/c5
Would you look at a CT scan from feet up or from head down?
As if looking from feet
What is the relative position of the oesophagus to the trachea at all points along their length?
Always posterior
At which vertebral level does the trachea commence in the neck?
C6
At which vertebral level does the trachea bifurcate into the 2 main bronchi?
Fifth basically
Carina corresponds to which bony joint on the anterior chest wall?
Sternomanubrium
Oblique fissure location?
Represented by a line extending from 3rd thoracic spine, obliquely ending at 6th costal cartilage
Where does the inferior margin reach to?
T 10
Transverse fissure (right lung) can be represents by a line reaching from where to where
From 4th right costal cartilage to meet the oblique fissure
Inferior border of the river at:
Midclavicular line:
Midaxillary line: T10
Mid-scapular line:
At which vertebral level does the trachea commence in the neck?
At inferior border of the larynx, at level of C6. This is where the cricoid cartilage also is.
Where does the trachea bifurcate into the 2 main bronchi?
T4
T4 is what bony joint on the anterior chest wall
Manubriosternal joint
The parietal pleura extends approximately how many ribs inferior to the lung?
2
Where does the oblique fissure of the lung extend from?
From the level of the spinous process of the T2 vertebra posteriorly
Where does the oblique fissure extend to? (From T2 posteriorly)
To the level of the 6th costal cartilage anteriorly
Where does the horizontal fissure of right lung extend from what anteriorly?
From the oblique fissure along the 4th rib, and costal cartilages anteriorly
Percussion, what sound:
Air filled =
Fluid filled =
Solid =
Air filled = resonant
Fluid filled = dull
Solid = flat
The posterior border of each lung extends from vertebra C7- T?
T10
9 layers a chest drain needle will traverse from superficial to deep?
1) skin
2) superficial fascia
3) deep fascia
4) external intercostal muscle
5) internal intercostal muscle
6) innermost intercostal muscle
7) parietal pleura
8) pleural cavity
9) visceral pleura
What’s the histological architecture of the trachea and bronchi? (4)
Adventitia
Smooth muscle
Hyaline cartilage
Submucosa
Mucosa
What’s the layers of the mucosa? (2)
Respiratory epithelium on basement membrane
Lamina propria
What are the two extrapulmonary tubes?
Trachea and bronchi outside of the lung
Which connective tissues predominates in the respiratory tract?
Collagen
What are the different types of connective tissue?
Loose
Dense
Specialised eg adipose, cartilage etc
What does ground substance do
It acts as a fluid matrix to suspend cells and fibers
What are connective tissues fivers and matrix synthesised by?
Specialised cells called fibroblasts
What type of muscle fibre is found in the resp tract?
Smooth
Name the two cell types found in the epithelial layer of the respiratory tract
(Essentially in the mucosa)
Simple ciliates columnar epithelium
Goblet cells
What is the type of epithelium in the trachea and bronchi called?
Respiratory epithelium??????
What type of cartilage is in the trachea, and what shape does it form?
Hyaline
Forms the cricoid cartilage, which fully enclosed the trachea
It’s a ring shape
What cartilage is directly superior in the cricoid cartilage?
Thyroid cartilage
In which tissue layer of the trachea are the secretory glands found?
Submucosa
What substance is secreted by the submucosa of the trachea? (There are mixed sero-mucous glands).
Well there are:
Watery secretions to humidify inspired air
Mucous from goblet cells
Purpose of the adventitia?
Connects and supports trachea to surrounding tissue eg thyroid and oesophagus
What does the adventitia contain (3)
Nerves
Vessels
Adipose tissue
The gaps between the rings of cartilage are filled by what (2)
Trachealis muscle
Fibroelastic tissue
Is there cartilage in the bronchi? (2)
Extrapulmonary bronchi = closely resembles trachea, so yes
Intrapulmonary bronchi = less cartilage, and doesn’t completely encircle the lumen
The bronchi contains layers of what between the mucosa and submucosa?
Smooth muscle
Diameter of bronchioles?
1mm or less
Explain the epithelium cells (hint: it goes from one, decreases in that type to finally become another)
1) is pseudostratified Ciliated columnar epithelium
This decreases in height in the bronchiole to finally become:
2) simple columnar and cuboidal epithelium
The further as you go down the bronchioles, are there less or more cilia
Less
As you go down the bronchioles, does smooth muscle increase or decrease
Increases
What cells in the bronchioles secrete surfactant
Clara cells
Are there: submucosal glands in bronchials?
No
Are there goblet cells in the bronchioles?
Nah
Terminal bronchiole is lined with what? (With another cell)
Ciliated cuboidal epithelium, with Clara cells
Alveolar ducts are surrounded by what:
Smooth muscle
Elastin
Collagen
Are there glands in the lamina propria of the bronchioles?
Nah
Macrophages are not in the alveoli
False
Gas exchange goes through what layers: (3)
1) capillary (endothelial cell)
2) basement membrane
3) simple squamous cell alveolar cell
The wall of the capillary endothelial cell is fused to what
That of the alveolar cell, with only a very thin basement membrane between these two cells
Basically the conducting portion of the resp system is architecturally characterised by the presence of what 4 things
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with cilia
Goblet cells
Gland tissue
Hyaline cartilage
(vs conducting portion)
The respiratory portion features the gradual transition from what cell to what cell
Cuboidal to simple
