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1
Q

Thalamus

A

Very complex and many different parts

  1. Connections of both motoric and sensoric tracts between cerebrum and medulla spinalis
  2. Transfers signals from the formation reticular to cerebral cortex
  3. Transfers signals between different parts of the limbic system
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2
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Grey matter and wall between third ventricle and the hypophysis. Produces thyroid hormones, sex hormones, lactation and cortisol. Important for inner environment of the body. Control of circulation and temperatur. Basal function for survival - thirst, hunger, sleep

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3
Q

Pineal gland

A

An endocrine gland. Controls our awakeness/sleeping hormone. Contains melatonin

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4
Q

Cerebral dominance

A

Left side (95%). All right handed and most of the left handed have a left hemisphere that is dominating.

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5
Q

Cerebrum

A

Contains Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, diencephalon, white matter.

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6
Q

Thalamus syndrome

A

The patient gets headache, hemianesthesia and sensory ataxia and develops a stroke

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7
Q

Four different lobes (cerebral hemispheres)

A

Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe

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8
Q

Prefrontal cortex

A
  • Located in the frontal lobe
  • Involved in our personality, insight, foresight
  • Association cortex: In many of these areas diffuse functions are found, ex abstract thinking

Phineas Gages accident, stick up through frontal lobe

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9
Q

Premotor cortex

A
  • Located in the frontal lobe

- The planning of movements. Infront of primary motor cortex, can also be called supplementary motor cortex (SMA)

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10
Q

Primary motor cortex

A
  • Located in the frontal lobe
  • Origin of descending motor pathways, corticospinal tract
  • Controls all of our voluntary movements

Humonculus: Distribution of primary cortex

Injuries to motor cortex may cause paresis, tumor or stroke.
Twitching means there is a problem in this area.

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11
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Involved in the ability to produce and make words

Diseases: Afasia (=inability to speak), motoric aphasia (=the patient knows what to say, but can’t produce words) Always located on the left side.

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12
Q

Areas of and injuries in frontal lobe

A

Areas: Prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, primary cortex and the Broca’s area

  1. No internal brake, actions without responsibilities, manic, egocentrism
  2. Decrease in energy, no initiative, unable to care
  3. Affected in consciousness, affected memory, disorientation, confabulation
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13
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Language, learning, Memory, auditory cortex, part of limbic system

Diseases: Herpes encephilatis, Temporal messiah sclerosis (may give epilepsy), temporal lobe resection
-Sensoric afasia = speech can be fluent with little or no meaning, the patient do not understand speech or text.

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14
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Spatial orientation and perception

Primary sensory cortex and Wernicke area

Syndromes:

  • Neglect on the right side (You don’t know what is up or down)
  • Gerstmann Syndrome = Right and left confusion (Not aware of your fingers (?)
  • Appraxia = Looses the ability to do everyday stuff, for example tie a showcase or lock the door
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15
Q

Primary sensory cortex

A

Information about sensory perception

Located in the parietal lobe

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16
Q

Wernicke area

A

Partly in the parietal lobe

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17
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Visual cortex

Syndromes:

  • Cortical blindness = Can come out of stroke or trauma
  • Anton-Babinski syndrome = Visual neglect

Visual pathway is crossed = Left eye is presented on the right occipital lobe, etc.

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18
Q

Tracts

A

Exists in the white matter of the cerebrum

  • Projection tracts: between levels in the CNS
  • Commisure tracts: between the hemispheres
  • Association tracts: Tracts within a hemisphere
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19
Q

Basal ganglia - Motor control

A

It is the grey matter deep within each hemisphere. They are involved in motor control and movements. –> Extrapyramid system

BG is needed to make movements smooth

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20
Q

Diseases in Basal Ganglia

A
  • Parkinsons: The BG need dopamin not to shake and not to be stiff/rigid. The patient can’t relax.
  • Huntingstons chorea: Unwanted movements, often in pairs
  • Hemiballismus: Arm/leg on one side is uncontrolled, involuntary movements
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21
Q

Limbic system

A

Emotions and memory, numerous connections

  1. Bilateral lesion of Hippocampus –> inability to form new memories
  2. Bilateral lesion of amygdala –> Hypersexuality, fearless and hyperorality
  3. Kluver-Bucy syndrome
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22
Q

Brainstem

A

A large number of axons to and from the brain pass through the brainstem. Ascending/Descending pathways.
Lots of cranial nerves connect here.

Including medulla oblongata, pons and the midbrain

It is the center for consciousness, control of breathing and heart rate, and pattern generators for swallowing and sneezing

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23
Q

Cerebellum

A

Two hemispheres with white and grey matter. The grey matter is deeper than the white matter.

Functions:

  • Involved in eye-coordination, trunk and head movements using signals from the ear (balance organ)
  • Helps to maintain posture and balance
  • Takes part in fine motor movements of the arms and hands and trained fast and complicated movements.

Diseases:

  • Intention tremor: Still at rest but start to shake when trying to do fine and precise movements
  • Dysmetri
  • Ataxic gait
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24
Q

PNS

A

Connects the CNS to the limbs and organs

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25
Q

Spinal nerves

A

Mixed, both motoric and sensoric

Motoric: efferent (output)
Sensoric: afferent (input)

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26
Q

Afferent signals

A

(Sensoric, input)

  1. Reflex
  2. Continue upwards in the dorsal column, cross midline, via the thalamus reaching the cerebral cortex - vibration and proprioception (muscles tendon)
  3. Spinothalamic tract, cross midline, via thalamus to cerebral cortex - pain and temperature
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27
Q

Efferent signals

A

(Motoric, output)

  1. Pyramidal tract - from cerebral cortex via medulla spinal is to muscles. Cross midline in the brainstem.
  2. Non-voluntary autonomic signals to organs
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28
Q

Cranial nerves

A

Close link between the olfactory system and the limbic system with emotions. Ex. you smell soothing and you get a feeling of love.

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29
Q

ANS - Autonomic nervous system

A
  • Not controlled by free will (ex. heart rate, blood pressure, glands)
  • Controlled by the hypothalamus (and a little bit by the brainstem)
  • Can be found in the CNS and PNS
  • Divided into two parts (sympathetic - fight or flight, parasympathetic - energy saving mode and recharging)
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30
Q

ENS - Enteric nervous system

A
  • Located at the wall of the intestines. Controls motility and secretory functions.
  • Contains many neurotransmitters, which means side effects from medicines may occur here (ex. stomach ache or nausea)
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31
Q

Sensory organs

A

How does the PNS get all the information? Different receptors in the sensory organs detects stimuli.

Sensation: Conscious or subconscious awareness of external or internal conditions of the body

  1. Stimulus (ray of light)
  2. Sensory receptor (eye)
  3. Conduction along a neural pathway (axion potential)
  4. Integration in the brain

Perception: Conscious sensation. How do you perceive sensations is very individual. Strong psychological aspect

Adaptaion: Affects both sensations and perceptions. Decrease in the strength of a sensation during a prolonged stimulus (when you get into a hot bath, it feels really warm at first, but you adapt after a short while. There is no adaptation if the sensation is potentially harmful.

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32
Q

Somatosensory (general senses)

A
  • Tactile
  • Thermal
  • Pain
  • Proprioception
  • Visceral
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33
Q

Sensory receptors

A
  • Mechanoreceptors: Mechanical pressure, vibration, proprioception
  • Thermoreceptors: Changes in temperature, different receptors for different temperatures
  • Nociceptors: Painreceptors, respond to physical or chemical damage to tissue. Very little adaptation. There is both fast and slow pain.
  • Photoreceptors: Detect light that meets the retina of the eye
  • Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell), and body fluids
  • Osmoreceptors: Sense osmotic pressure in body fluids
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34
Q

Type of sensory receptors

A
  • Free nerve endings: Pain, touch pressure
  • Meissner corpuscle: Light touch, small receptive fields
  • Merkel disc: Touch and pressure, small receptive fields
  • Ruffini end organs: touch, heavy pressure, large receptive fields
  • Pacinian corpuscles: Vibration
  • Hair end organ: touch
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35
Q

Pain

A
  • Tissue damage
  • Tissue ischemia (acidosis, laktate)
  • Thermal pain
  • Spasm of muscle, artery or “hollow viscus”
  • Inflammation
  • Neurogenic pain

Syndromes:

  • Hyperalgesia: increased sensitivity
  • CRPS: complex signal regional pain syndrome (neurogenic pain)
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36
Q

Referred pain

A

Pain in the left arm when having a heart attack due to nerves from the left arm and heart enter the brain at the same place

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37
Q

Gate control

A

Stimulation of large fibers (touch) prevents pain impulses. Blow on your pain stops the pain signals from reaching the brain

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38
Q

Proprioceptive sensations

A

Knowledge of position, both static and dynamic that depend on knowing the degrees of angulation in all joints. Both conscious and subconscious

  1. Static position sense: Conscious perception of the orientation of the different parts of the body with respect to one another
  2. Dynamic proprioception: Rate of movement sense

Almost no adaptation

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39
Q

Special senses

A

Olfaction = Sense of smell
Gustation = Sense of taste (sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami)
Vision
Hearing and equilibrium

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40
Q

Benign prostatic hyperplasia

A

Symptoms:

  • Urinary tract infections, stone formation
  • Increased frequency
  • Stranguria
  • Urinary retention
  • Incomplete emptying of the bladder

Diagnostics:

  • History
  • Medical examination
  • Micturition diary (write down when he peed, for how long, and how much)
  • Flow measurements
  • Ultrasonic measurement of the prostate
  • Cytoscopy
  • Pressure/flow studies

Treatments:

  • Inhibitors (a-adrenoreceptor or 5a-reductase inhibitors)
  • Sometimes open surgery, but only when the prostate is too large
  • TURP: cut away prosthetic tissue piece by piece by electric current. Faster healing time, but dangerous for large prostates
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41
Q

Erectile dysfunctions

A

Problems with the heart or vessels may cause erectile dysfunction (ED). Heart syndromes might develop 5-6 years later than ED.

Treatments:

  • The spider acid metabolism (injection)
  • Injectons are far more effective, Caverject is the most effective. Hardly feel it.
  • Viagra is the most common (tablets work for 60% of the patients)
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42
Q

Kidney stone disease

A

Common disorder, but not sure what causes it. It may be by metabolic disturbance or over production of parathyroid hormone.

Symptoms:

  • Extremely painful, by the hip
  • Nausea and vomiting
  • Hematuria

Diagnostics:

  • History
  • Urin-analysis
  • Intravenous urography, CT
  • Uteroscopy

Treatment:

  • None (pee the stones out when stones are < 3 mm)
  • Shockwave therapy (ESWL)
  • Chemical castration (rarely used)
  • Open surgical removal (rarely used)
  • Ureteroscopy with fragmentation of the stone –> small fragments of the stone can be peed out
  • Percutaneous stone extraction - patient can leave the hospital the same day
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43
Q

Prostate cancer

A

Most common form of cancer amongst men in Sweden

Symptoms:

  • Voiding dysfunction
  • Urinary retention
  • Pain
  • Anemia (bone marrow is occupied by cancer tumors)

Diagnostics:

  • Serum-PSA < 3 (200-300, the cancer has spread)
  • Digital rectal exam
  • Transrectal ultrasound with biopsy

Treatment:

  • Take away entire prostate: radical prostatectomy. Preferable, but leads to inability to reproduce.
  • External beam radiation
  • Inner radiation therapy
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44
Q

Treatment of incurable prostate cancer

A
  • Surgical castration
  • Chemical castration (every 3-6 months) GnRH –> no testosterone is produced
  • Other kinds of hormonal manipulation
  • No treatment at all (Gustav)
  • Important to individualise the treatment
  • Castration may leed to severe side effects
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45
Q

Kidney cancer

A
  • Diagnosed by chance often
  • Treatment: remove the whole part of the kidney
  • Can often be spread all over the body - incurable
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46
Q

Testis cancer

A
  • Affects young men (18-25)
  • High survival rate these days. (95 %)
  • Sometimes remove the entire testicle
  • Radiotherapy
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47
Q

Bladder disorders

A
  • Overactive
  • Cancer - common
  • Bladder stone
  • Incontinence
  • Inflammatory conditions

Treatments:

  • Pharmacological treatment - overactive bladder
  • Electrical stimulation
  • Surgical extirpation or reconstruction
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48
Q

Urethral stricture disease

A
  • Common for men
  • Internal urethrotomy (cut it open), 50 % stay open, the rest will have to do it again
  • Perineal urethrostomy, will leed to the patient having to pee as a girl
49
Q

Overactive bladder treatment

A
  • Behavioural therapy
  • Adjusted fluid intake
  • Pharmacological treatment
  • Injection in the bladder with botox
  • Surgical reconstruction
50
Q

Hematuria

A

=blood in the urine

  • May be caused by cancer of the upper or lower urinary tract
  • Microhematuria cannot be seen (only microscopically)
  • Frank hematuria (macrohematuria) is visible by the human eye
  • Frank hematuria necessitates prompt and full investigation with cytoscopy and contrast enhanced computed tomography of the kidneys (IMPORTANT)
  • Microhematuria does not warrant investigation
51
Q

Diagnosing pathology in the nervous system

A
  • Medical history
  • Neurological examination: strength, reflexes, sensory deficits with the help of reflex hammer, flashlight, needles and measure strength in arm
  • Imaging
52
Q

Which index measures different stages of brain damage?

A

RLS

RLS 1 means fully awake, and RLS 8 is dead.

53
Q

Subdural hematoma

A

The white matter is bleeding (under the dura)

54
Q

Epidural hematoma

A

Bleeding outside of the dura

55
Q

Primary brain trauma

A

There is a bleeding inside the brain. The patient is bad off.

56
Q

Secondary brain trauma

A

Bleeding outside the brain. If quickly fixed, the patient can survive.

57
Q

What to do when there is a brain trauma?

A
  • Stabilise vital parameters (breathing, circulation, etc.)
  • Clinical evaluation
  • Suspected damage to the brain
  • Further diagnostics are necessary
58
Q

DAI = Diffuse axonal injury

A

Axons get ripped appart (primary brain damage) which is very common in a high velocity injury. Cannot be fixed.

59
Q

Brain tumors

A
  • Primary: Starts in the brain and are very hard to reach –> lethal
  • Secondary: metastasis (comes from breast/kidney/lung cancers)
  • Malignant tumors spread
  • Benign tumors don’t spread, can be removed and the patient survives.

Symptoms:

  • Headache (worse in the morning, does not get better)
  • Epilepsy
  • Focal neurological deficits (paresis of the left arm for example)
60
Q

Stroke

A

Bleeding or infarction (lack of oxygen)

  • Infarction: Dark side of the brain
  • Bleeding: White area of the brain
61
Q

Aneurism

A

= blob on an artery

  • Clipping: open scull and put a clip on it. No further treatment is needed
  • Coiling: hard to reach, endovascular. Go in at the groin and leave platinum coils. Need to be redone.
62
Q

DBS = Deep brain stimulation

A

Stereotactic apparatus. Can place an electrode with high precision. May help out patients with Parkinson’s, but not permanently. Need to implant a battery.

63
Q

Three major regions of the skin

A

Epidermis: outermost superficial region - squamos
Dermis: connective tissue, vessels, middle region
Hypodermis: (subcutaneous fat) - deepest region

64
Q

Functions of the skin (integumentary system)

A
  • Protection: chemical, physical and mechanical barrier
  • Body temperature regulation: Dialation (cooling) and sweat glands to loose heat
  • Cutaneous sensation: exoreceptors sense touch and pain
  • Metabolic functions: synthesis of vitamin D in dermal blood vessels
  • Blood reservoir: skin blood vessels store up to 5 % of the body’s entire blood volume
  • Excretion: limited amounts of nitrogenous wastes are eliminated from the body in sweat. (Not as important as the kidney)
65
Q

Epidermis

A
  • Keratinized squamous epithelium
  • Consists of four distinct cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Merkel cells, and Langerhans’ cells.
  • Langerhans’ cell: epidermal macrophages that help activate the immune system
  • Merkel cells: function as touch receptors in associations with sensory nerve endings
66
Q

Dermis

A
  • Second major skin containing strong, flexible connective tissue
  • Cell types include fibroblasts, macrophages, and occasionally mast cells and white blood cells
  • Composed of two layers, papillary and reticular layer
67
Q

Hypodermis

A
  • Subcutaneous layer of the skin

- Composed of adipose and areolar connective tissue

68
Q

Skin color

A

Three pigments contribute to skin color:

  • Melanin: yellow-reddish brown to black pigment, responsible for dark skin colors
  • Carotene: yellow to orange pigment, most obvious in the palms and soles of the feet
  • Hemoglobin: reddish pigment responsible for the pinkish hue of the skin
69
Q

Sweat Glands

A

Different types prevent overheating of the body, secrete cerumen and milk

  • Eccrine sweat glands: found in palms, soles of the feet and forehead
  • Apocrine sweat glands: found in axillary and anogenital areas
  • Ceruminous glands: modified apocrine glands in external ear canal that secrete cerumen
70
Q

Sebaceous glands

A
  • Alveolar glands found all over the body
  • Softens skin when stimulated by hormones
  • Secrete an oily secretion called sebum
71
Q

Hair

A
  • Dead keratinised cells produced by hair follicles
  • Consists of a core called medulla, a cortex and outermost cuticle
  • Pigmented by the melanocytes at the base of the hair.

Functions:

  • Helping maintain warmth
  • Alerting the body to the insects of the skin
  • Guarding scalp against physical trauma, heat loss and sunlight
  • There are knots of sensory nerve endings located at hair roots.
72
Q

Skin cancer

A
  • Basal cell carcinoma
  • Squamos cell carcinoma
  • Melanoma
73
Q

Burns

A
  • First degree: Only epidermis is damaged, ex. sunburn
  • Second degree: epidermis and upper regions of dermis is damaged. Similar symptoms to first degree burn, but blisters may appear
  • Third degree: entire thickness of the skin is damaged. Burned areas appear white-gray, cherry red or black. There is no initial edema or pain since the nerve endings are destroyed
74
Q

Epididymis

A

(Bitestikel) sperms mature and will be stored

75
Q

Scrotum

A

(pung) temperature is 2 degrees lower, due to sperm production. Contains two testis

76
Q

Three bodies of the penis

A

2 corpus cavernous and 1 corpus spongiosum

77
Q

Spermatogenis

A

Actual production of the sperm

78
Q

Blood testis barrier

A

Risk that the male’s own immune system attacks the sperm, therefore there is a need of a barrier.
Created by seritoli cells

79
Q

Leydig cells

A

Interstitial cells which produces testosterone

80
Q

Bone function

A
  • Support
  • Protection
  • Assist in movements
  • Mineral homeostasis, ex. calcium
  • Blood cell production (in red bone marrow)
81
Q

Epiphysis

A

Located at both ends. Where the bone grows, can roughly decide a person’s age.

82
Q

Periosteum

A

Where the sensory receptors are. Where the muscles will attach to the bone. Covers compact bone

83
Q

Types of cells in bone

A
  • Osteogenic cell develops into an osteoblast
  • Osteoblast forms bone extracellular matrix
  • Osteocyte maintains bone tissue
  • Osteoclast functions in resorption, the breakdown of bone matrix
84
Q

Compact bone

A
  • Canaliculi (“little canals”) which carry blood and lymph

- No specific sensory receptors in the bone, can operate with local anaesthesia

85
Q

Spongy bone

A
  • Not arranged in osteons
  • Spaces between trabecular may contain red bone marrow. Some RBM may be replaced by fat –> yellow bone.
  • Lighter than compact bone –> reduces weight of skeleton
86
Q

Growth of bone

A
  • Initial bone development in embryo and fetes. All bones are laid out by cartilage (formed in the womb)
  • Growth of bone into adulthood, beginning at 6 weeks and can end at 18 years
  • Remodelling: replacement of old bone
  • Repair if fracture occur. Core of the bone is calcified. Radiologists only see calcified parts.
87
Q

Growth in length

A
  • Chondrocytes divide and grow more cartilage on epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
  • Chondrocytes on the diaphysial side die and are replaced by bone, which means bone grows from the diaphysial side towards the epiphyseal side
  • Growth in length stops between 18-25 years, which means the cartilage in epiphyseal plate is completely replaced by bone
88
Q

Functions of vertebrae

A
  • Encloses spinal cord
  • Supports head
  • Point of attachment for muscles of back, ribs and pelvic girdle
89
Q

Thorax

A

Ribs on children are not mineralised - still made up of cartilage and are very hard to break. The older you get, the less cartilage your ribcage is made up of

90
Q

Fractures

A
  • Partial: incomplete break (crack)
  • Complete: bone broken into two or more pieces
  • Closed (simple): not through skin
  • Open (compound): broken ends break skin, high bacterial risk
91
Q

Green stick fracture

A

Small crack inside the bone which is not visible with the naked eye. There is bleeding into the tissue and the bone.

92
Q

Repair after a fracture

A
  • Dead tissue removed

- Chondroblasts –> fibrocartilage –> spongy bone deposited by osteoblasts –> remodelled to compact bone

93
Q

Surgical repair

A

= osteosynthesis

Insertment of plates, screws, nails and/or ex-fix

94
Q

Conservative repair

A
  • Standardized way to fix bones in children
  • Reduction of bone ends
  • Immobilization in a plaster cast including joints above and below the fracture
  • Time to heal!

Cons: Immobilization means the bone + 2 joints needs to be fixed for roughly 6-8 weeks

95
Q

Renal artery

A

Gives blood to the kidney. There is about 1 L of the blood that goes through here

96
Q

Nephron

A

Working unit in the kidney

97
Q

Primary urin

A

About 200 L.

99% is reabsorbed –> 2 L urin is being expelled each day

98
Q

What does the kidney do?

A
  • Regulation of blood ionic composition: Need to be levelled, slight change may cause death
  • Regulation of blood volume and blood pressure: High blood volume –> higher pressure
  • Regulation of blood pH: Bring back blood pH to normal levels, slight change leads to death
  • Regulation of blood cell production: EPO (=erythropetin) affects the red bone marrow and produces more red blood cells. Can be used for doping
  • Vitamin D synthesis: Starts in the kidney and is finalised in the skin by the sun
  • Excretion of wastes and foreign substances
99
Q

Glomerulobephritis

A

Causes:

  • Allergic reaction to bacterial toxins
  • Autoimmune conditions (body attacks itself)

Symptoms:

  • Hematuria: Blood in the urin
  • Proteinuria: protein (äggvita) leaves the kidney because the holes are too big
100
Q

Acute renal failure

A
  • Suppression of urine flow
  • Low blood volume
  • Decreased cardiac output
  • Damage to the renal tubules
  • Dye reactions
  • Drugs
101
Q

Chronic renal failure

A
  • Glomerulonephritis
  • Pyelonephritis = urinvägsinfektion, can be deadly if it reaches the kidneys
  • Polycystic kidney disease: born with it
  • Traumatic loss of kidney tissue (due to accidents)
  • Long standing obstruction of the urine flow
102
Q

Dialysis

A
  • Hemodialysis: need to be done at hospital or similar. Need to change the whole blood and go 2-3 times a week. Most common
  • CAPD (Continous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis: Can do the dialysis at home
103
Q

Na+ (sodium)

A

Extracellular ion

104
Q

K+ (potassium)

A

Intracellular ion. If it comes out of the cell, it will kill you (cardiac arrest)

105
Q

Three principal buffer systems

A
  1. Protein buffer system
  2. The carbonic acid - bicarbonate buffer system
  3. The phosphate buffer system
106
Q

Protein buffer system

A
  • Composed of amino acids and contain at least one carboxyl group (-COOH)
  • Carboxyl group releases one H+ when pH rises
  • Proteins can buffer both acids and bases
  • Main proteins are hemoglobin in red blood cells, and albumin in plasma
107
Q

The carbonic acid - bicarbonate buffer system

A
  • When pH falls: H+ + HCO3- –> H2CO3

- When pH rises: H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3-

108
Q

The phosphate buffer system

A
  • When buffering a strong base: H2PO4- + OH- –> HPO42- + H20
  • When buffering a strong acid: H2PO42- + H+ –> H2PO4-
109
Q

Acidosis

A

pH at about 7.35

  • Respiratory acidosis: ex strangulation
  • Metabolic acidosis: diabetic ketoacidosis

Metabolic and respiratory compensation

110
Q

Alkalosis

A

pH above 7.45

  • Respiratory alkalosis: ex. hyperventilation
  • Metabolic alkalosis: increased bicarbonate in serum. May be caused by vomiting

Metabolic and respiratory compensation

111
Q

Prostate

A
  • Located immodestly below the urinary bladder
  • Surrounds the urethra
  • Produce semen but not sperm cell
  • PSA: prostate specific antigen
112
Q

What is a hormone?

A
  • Common protein hormone: Insulin
  • Lack of some hormones –> psychological issues
  • Enters the bloodstream from a gland and approaches its target organ
  • An advanced feedback system
113
Q

Testosterone

A
  • Derived from a steroid similar to cholesterol
  • Regulated by positive and negative feedback
  • Include muscular growth (anabola steroider)
  • Responsible for starting to produce sperms, Adam’s apple, muscles, beard, etc.
  • Midbrain –> pituitary gland –> testicles –> testosterone is produced by Leydig cells
  • Target organs: fatty tissue have high levels of testosterone, skeleton have high levels of testosterone, belly fat have high levels of testosterone
114
Q

Genotype/Phenotype

A

Genotype: XY
Phenotype: What you see on the outside of the body

115
Q

Air conduction hearing

A

hearing via vibrations in outer, middle, and inner ear

116
Q

Bone conduction hearing

A

hearing via vibrations of the skull from own voice and surrounding sound or vibrating transducer

117
Q

Type of hearing losses

A
  • Conductive loss: outer and middle ear
  • Sensorineural loss: inner ear and auditory nerve
  • Mixed loss: mixed loss of connective loss and sensorineural loss
118
Q

Bone anchored hearing aid (BAHA)

A
  • Direct bone conduction
  • Skin penetration
  • Bypass outer and middle ear
  • Complications associated with skin penetration

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