HEJ - History of Desegregation of WUSM

Question 1

1724

Answer 1

Louisiana Code Noir
Code Noir, or slave code, was introduced in 1724
and remained in force until the U.S. took
possession of Louisiana Territory in 1803. The
Code’s 54 articles regulated the status of slaves
and free blacks. Article 32 states that a fugitive
slave who has been on the run for one month from
the day his master reported him to the police, shall
have his ears cut off and shall be branded with a
fleur-de-lis, a prominent symbol for the City of
St. Louis

Question 2

1807

Answer 2

Importation of slaves is abolished
This leads to slave masters/plantation owners
forcing black women to have more children because
they were of value to slave masters/plantation
owner

Question 3

1818

Answer 3

On September 25, 1818 the Osage Nation ceded
another 1.8 million acres in Missouri and Oklahoma
with no compensation. The Treaty of St. Louis
includes a series of 14 treaties, all signed in St.
Louis with various Indigenous tribes from 1804
through 1824.

Question 4

1819

Answer 4

Free blacks and their allies protest the entrance of
Missouri into the Union as a slave state in front of
the Old Courthouse

Question 5

1824

Answer 5

Winny vs. Whiteside: The first freedom suit heard
by the Supreme Court of Missouri. The court
determined that if a slave owner took a slave into
free territory and established residence there, the
slave would be free

Question 6

1830’s

Answer 6

Introduction of “negro medicine” begins as the
abolitionist movement picks up. Negro medicine is
developed to prove the inferiority of Black people
and justify slavery.
Polygenists tried to use science and the Bible to
prove that races evolved from different origins.
(This has since been disproved and monogenism
has been widely accepted.)
Recorded experimentation begins on Black women’s
bodies, from experimental cesarean sections to
removal of an ovary.
Half of the articles in the 1836 Southern Medical
and Surgical Journal are dealing with experiments
on Black people.

Question 7

1845-1849

Answer 7

James Marion Simms performs experimental surgery
on a 17-year-old female slave name Anarca.
He would perform over 30 operations on her and
additional operations on 11 other female slaves.
No anesthesia was used on enslaved women, even
after it was introduced in 1846.

Question 8

1851

Answer 8

A book call The Natural History of the Human
Species puts into print a common and dangerous
misconception that Black people did not feel pain or
anxiety.

Question 9

1846

Answer 9

St. Louis City
hospital #1 begins
operation; Was kept
strictly segregated.
Black/AA people
were treated in the
rear part of the 2nd
and 3rd floors

Question 10

1879

Answer 10

Children’s Hospital
opens in a small
house. Serves white
patients only.

Question 11

1865

Answer 11

The Missouri Constitutional Convention officially
abolishes slavery in Missouri three weeks before
the United States Congress proposed the
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

Question 12

1875

Answer 12

The Missouri Constitution mandates separate public
schools for white and African American students as
a primary tool of de jure Jim Crow segregation in
postwar Missouri along with a prohibition against
miscegenation. Missouri and St. Louis remain
starkly segregated after the Civil War.

Sumner High School, the first African American
high school west of the Mississippi, opens on
Eleventh Street between Poplar and Spruce. The
school is later moved to The Ville neighborhood in
1910.

Question 13

1884

Answer 13

Children’s Hospital moves to a new building. The
wards are for whites only. They provide an
outpatient clinic that is open to all and is not
segregated.

Question 14

1896

Answer 14

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that “separate but
equal” public accommodations are not in violation
of the Fourteenth Amendment, thereby legalizing
racial segregation.

Question 15

1900’s

Answer 15

A wave of immigration to the U.S. sparks the birth
of the American eugenics movement. One key
objective was to reduce the childbearing or
sterilization of poor and disabled women.
Margaret Sanger, founder of Planned Parenthood,
starts the Negro Project. Family planning centers
that pushed birth control in the Black South.

Question 16

1901

Answer 16

African Americans in St. Louis died of tuberculosis
at a rate more than three times higher than Whites
• Most of these disparities arose from differences in
living conditions related to poverty and segregation; however,
the public institutions also gave different treatment based
upon race.

Question 17

1902

Answer 17

Jewish hospital is created because St. Louis
hospitals refused to hire and train Jewish doctors or
see Jewish patients.

Question 18

1910 and 1911

Answer 18

Question 19

1914 (2 things)

Answer 19

The St. Louis Chapter of the NAACP is founded, 5
years after the national organization takes root

Barnes Hospital is created as a private hospital and
is segregated like most hospitals and all other
aspects of society

Question 20

1917

Answer 20

East St. Louis Race Riots: Also known as the East
St. Louis Pogrom, result in the massacre of African
Americans by white rioters, who target black
strikebreakers as scapegoats for their labor anger
Though no definitive record exists, it’s estimated
that between 40-250 lives were lost in the riots, a
majority black.

Question 21

1915

Answer 21

Children’s Hospital moves to the medical campus,
returning to a whites only hospital. Minutes from a
board meeting suggest that some members were
regretful about moving back to a full segregated
facility.

Question 22

1918 ( 2 things)

Answer 22

In response to the East St. Louis Race Riots, the
St. Louis chapter of the Urban League was founded
to provide resources to African Americans
Leonidas C. Dyer, Missouri Twelfth District
representative, introduces an anti-lynching bill in
the U.S. House of Representatives, also in
response to the massacre during the East St. Louis
Race Riots.

White women first gain admission to the student
body of the school of medicine.

Question 23

1919

Answer 23

St. Louis City Hospital #2 is created to serve the
growing Black/AA population as a result of the great
migration from the south.
Conditions were terrible:
 Overcrowding – Pulling 2 beds together for 3
patients
No quarantine for TB patients – AA/Black
patients with 3x the rate of TB than whites

Question 24

1923

Answer 24

Children’s Hospital first began admitting black inpatients. They could only be admitted into the “Ward
for Colored Patients”, (known as the Butler Ward),
located on the first floor of the main hospital building

Question 25

Early 1920's

Answer 25

``` A group of Black physicians proposed to use a section of City Hospital #1 for the training of Black interns and residents but the city denied the request ```

Question 26

1928

Answer 26

``` In order to build the new Maternity hospital, Black patients are moved to the basement of Barnes Hospital ```

Question 27

1932

Answer 27

The Colored Clerks’ Circle is organized in St. Louis as part of the nationwide “Don’t Buy Where You Can’t Work” campaign. The Circle organizes boycotts of companies located in the African American community who refuse to hire African American workers

Question 28

1933

Answer 28

Redlining begins

Question 29

1935-1961

Answer 29

Half of the states passed pro-sterilization laws and often sterilization was forced. Black women represented half of those affected. The practice was so common that the surgery developed the nickname, the “Mississippi Appendectomy”.

Question 30

1937

Answer 30

``` Homer G. Phillips hospital opens in “The Ville.”  Serves most African-American patients in STL  Largest training ground for African-American interns & residents in the United States  African-Americans served as administrators, attending physicians, nurses, & ancillary staff ```

Question 31

1942

Answer 31

Children’s Hospital integrates all wards. The first to | integrate on the medical campus.

Question 32

1944 (2 things)

Answer 32

Homer G. Phillips Hospital spent $4.86 per patient and City Hospital #1 spent $6.81 per patient – a 30% difference. In fact, funding at the two hospitals was never equal until 1970. AND The St. Louis Citizens Rights committee starts a series of sit-ins at the dining rooms and counters of three downtown department stores SLU begins integration.

Question 33

1947 (2 things)

Answer 33

Harry Truman’s “Higher Education for American Democracy.” Washington University dissents • Commissioned by Harry Truman July 1946 • Delivered December 1947 • The critical line: “federal appropriations (should) be given only to those schools willing to comply (with desegregation)” “disagreed with any recommendation as to the immediate abandonment of segregation” Removal of inequality must be made “within the established patterns of social relationships” WUSM accidentally accepts a Black M.D. to a 3 week continuing education course of Ophthalmology. They don’t send him home, and then declare WUSM desegregated

Question 34

1948

Answer 34

Shelley v. Kraemer: Landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that struck down racially restrictive housing covenants.

Question 35

Who were the first african american Physicians at WashU

Answer 35

Dr. Helen Nash and Dr. James Whittico

Question 36

1951

Answer 36

``` Entry of first African American medical student (Edgar Thomas). He did not graduate. ```

Question 37

1953

Answer 37

Bernard Becker arrives at Washington University to head ophthalmology and was dismayed by both the segregation in the city and in his own McMillan Hospital.  About the 0400 ward, he wrote: “a most unpleasant experience because of the crowding and inadequate ventilation…I was shocked.”  He threatened to leave if McMillan remained segregated.

Question 38

1953-43

Answer 38

McMillan is integrated. Bernard Becker wrote: “on the private floors, there was a great deal of opposition from my own visiting staff…I had to keep at this. Whenever I turned my back, segregation was restored.”

Question 39

1954

Answer 39

``` Jewish Hospital is the first private hospital “to accept black patients on a non-segregated basis” on the wards. ``` AND Davis et al. v. The St. Louis Housing Authority: Frankie Muse Freeman successfully sues the Housing Authority for discrimination in public housing. The federal court later requires the housing authority to integrate its projects in 1955.

Question 40

1955

Answer 40

``` Renard is integrated. Physicians continue to play a key role. Samuel B. Guze and George Winokur quietly admitted one black patient. ```

Question 41

1958

Answer 41

Entry of Second African American | Medical Student - James Sweatt

Question 42

1962

Answer 42

James Sweatt, III graduates – the first African | American graduate of WUSM

Question 43

1963

Answer 43

The Jefferson Bank Protest is the largest civil rights protest in St. Louis history in response to discriminatory labor practices by the bank. The protests lasted seven months.

Question 44

1964

Answer 44

Percy Green founds and leads ACTION. Members of CORE demanded jobs for African Americans on the Gateway Arch construction project. Green receives national attention by climbing 125 ft. on the north leg of the Arch while under construction in protest against the lack of black workers on the Gateway Arch project.

Question 45

1965

Answer 45

A historic resolution is recorded in the Barnes Hospital board minutes announcing an end to racial discrimination. Medicare and Medicaid Begin The Gateway Arch is completed

Question 46

1967

Answer 46

AAMC publishes ethnicities of medical school enrollment Medical Education is Segregated Nationwide <3% of entering medical students are Black 75% of those are in two schools: Howard and Meharry WUSM has no Black students

Question 47

1968

Answer 47

``` The 3rd, 4th, 5th Black students to enter WUSM (Julian Mosley, Patrick Obiaya, Karen Scruggs) ```

Question 48

1969

Answer 48

``` Report of the Student Committee on Minority Student Admission submitted to the Executive Faculty (EF) Recommendations from 1st year students to improve recruiting and retention of underrepresented minorities were approved by the EF. Richard Brodsky, Julian Mosley, Allan Rappoport, Karen Scruggs - two students were African American, two students were white ```

Question 49

1969-1970

Answer 49

City Hospital #1 is unaccredited for 7 months

Question 50

1973

Answer 50

Staff nurse LaFrances Cockwell becomes the first black nurse to hold administrative responsibilities as the associate director of nursing over ob-gyn, nurseries, eye & ear nose and throat divisions.

Question 51

1975

Answer 51

To address medically underserved areas like North St. Louis, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services establishes Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) to provide affordable healthcare to America’s most needy.

Question 52

1978

Answer 52

Barnes hospital director Robert Frank established “geographic separation of patients” at Maternity Hospital in which ward patients, largely black, would be on certain floors; private patients, most white would be on others. While Frank said the intent was not to resegregate, that is the impact it had.

Question 53

1979

Answer 53

Homer G. Phillips Hospital is closed because of budget constraints. The city chooses to keep City Hospital #1, (the facility serving white patients), open despite Homer G. being the newer of the two facilities. Its shut down sparked protest and loss of opportunity in “The Ville” community where it was located.

Question 54

1980's

Answer 54

To better serve the increase in new refugees and Limited English Proficient (LEP) patients within St. Louis, Jewish Hospital creates Refugee Health & Immigration Services.

Question 55

1990

Answer 55

Norplant contraception is selectively | marked to Black teenager girls in Baltimore.

Question 56

1991

Answer 56

Regional Hospital opens to replace the city | hospitals (City Hospital #1 and Homer G.)

Question 57

1993

Answer 57

Freeman Bosley, Sr. is elected as the first African | American mayor in St. Louis

Question 58

1996 and 2001

Answer 58

``` 1996: Barnes Hospital and Jewish Hospital merge to create Barnes-Jewish Hospital ``` ``` 2001: The last remaining public hospital in St. Louis is closed, leaving a fiscal crisis for St. Louis healthcare safety net system. In the wake of this, the Regional Health Commission was formed. ```

Question 59

2012

Answer 59

Dr. Victoria Fraser becomes first female chair of a clinical department at Washington University School of Medicine

Question 60

2006 and 2014

Answer 60

``` 2006:The Center for Diversity & Cultural Competence is created at BarnesJewish Hospital to support the delivery of culturally competent, patient-centered care that is equitable for all. ``` ``` 2014:Researchers from WUSTL and SLU publish landmark study “For the Sake of All”, a report on the health and wellbeing of African Americans in the St. Louis Region. The report highlights significant and persistent health disparities. ```

Question 61

2016

Answer 61

Pearson Education, a leading educational publisher, issues an apology and recalls nursing textbooks that included racist stereotypes, i.e. Black people experience pain less than other races.

Question 62

2018

Answer 62

Washington University School of Medicine establishes the office of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion