Heat

Question 1

How to get desired results from heat

Answer 1

Know the results you seek, then work backwards to figure out the necessary steps.

Question 2

Food is primarily made up of four basic types of molecules:

Answer 2

Water, fat, carbohydrates, and protein

Question 3

The science of heat

Answer 3

Heat causes chemical reactions that affect the flavor and texture of food. Heat reacts with water, fat, carbohydrates, and protein molecules in different ways.

Question 4

Freezer burn and dehydration

Answer 4

The result of the food’s cell walls bursting as the water they contain expands and then crystallizes or vaporizes on the surface of the food.

Question 5

Water content and heat

Answer 5

Cook most of the water out of a food, and it will become crisp or dry. Cook water into starches, and they will be tender. Vegetables that lose water become limp.

Question 6

Steam

Answer 6

As long as food is wet and giving off steam, its surface temperature isn’t hot enough to allow browning to begin. Contain and recycle steam with a lid to allow food to cook in a moist environment if you want to prevent or delay browning. Steam replaces some of the air in vegetables with water.

Question 7

sweating

Answer 7

A way to cook food through with steam without allowing it to develop any color, trapped steam maintaining the temperature right around 212°.

Question 8

Steam and cooking vessels

Answer 8

Pans with sloped or curved sides are better at allowing steam to escape than pans with straight sides. The taller the sides of the pan or pot, the long it takes steam to escape.

Question 9

Salt and steam

Answer 9

Let salt help, drawing water out of the food (sweating onions) it touches, to create steam when desired. When the goal is to brown swiftly, wait to salt food until after it begins to crisp. Or salt far enough in advance to let osmosis occur, pat the food (eggplant, zucchini) dry, and then place into the hot pan.

Question 10

carbohydrates and heat

Answer 10

When heated, carbohydrates generally absorb water and break down. Cellulose (the fourth type of carb after sugar, pectin, starch) isn’t broken down by heat, so cellulose-rich produce (fibrous, stringy), like collard greens etc. should be cooked until they absorb enough water to become tender.

Question 11

Starches

Answer 11

A type of carbohydrate, starches absorb liquid and break down. Legumes and grains and seeds need water and to be cooked until tender. Too little water and they are dry, crumbly, or tough. Overcooked are mushy. Starches are eager to brown and burn easily.

Question 12

Sugar and heat

Answer 12

When exposed to heat, sugar melts. Hot sugar confectionaries require specific temperatures. Sugars in vegetables start to disappear after they’re picked, so the fresher the sweeter.

Question 13

Potatoes, sugars, and starches

Answer 13

At their sweetest when first harvested, freshly dug potatoes are so full of sugar that if fried, they’ll burn before they cook through. When making potato chips or fries, use starchy, older potatoes and rinse them of extra starch until the water runs clear.

Question 14

carmelization

Answer 14

At extremely high temperatures, sugar molecules darken in color, and decompose and reorganize into hundreds of new compounds, making abundant new flavors. Besides acidic flavor compounds, they make bitter, fruity, caramel, nutty, sherry, and butterscotch. This can happen in vegetables too.

Question 15

cellulose and heat

Answer 15

Cellulose in a vegetable or fruit is what gives it fibrous or string texture. This isn’t broken down by heat alone, but needs to absorb enough water to become tender. Leaves have less cellulose fibers than stems or stalks.

Question 16

Tubers

Answer 16

Potatoes, yams, Jerusalem artichokes are starches

Question 17

Bulbs

Answer 17

Onions, shallots, and garlic are sugars

Question 18

roots

Answer 18

Sweet potatoes, rutabaga, turnips, radishes, carrots, celery root, beets, and parsnips are starches and sugars

Question 19

Leaves

Answer 19

Salad and cooking greens, pea shoots are cellulose (and sugars when fresh)

Question 20

seeds

Answer 20

Fresh and dried beans, grains (whole and milled), nuts, peas, corn, cornmeal, grits, hominy, quinoa are starches and cellulose

Question 21

Fruits

Answer 21

Zucchini, tomatoes, eggplant, winter squash are sugars

Question 22

Flowers

Answer 22

Artichokes, broccoli, squash blossoms, cauliflower are cellulose (and sugars when very fresh)

Question 23

Pods

Answer 23

Okra, snap peas are cellulose (and sugars when very fresh)

Question 24

Pectin sources

Answer 24

Pectin (carbohydrate, a kind of indigestible fiber) is found primarily in the seeds and peels of citrus fruits, stone fruits, and apples.

Question 25

Pectin and heat

Answer 25

Pectin functions as a gelling agent when combined with sugar and acid and exposed to heat. It makes possible fruit preserves and fruit pastes.

Question 26

Heat and collagen

Answer 26

Collagen is the main structural protein found in animal connective tissue. Sustained low heat changes it into gelatin, especially with the help of acid, water.

Question 27

The Maillard reaction

Answer 27

Heat’s most significant contribution to flavor, when proteins are heated in the presence of carbohydrates. This browning creates new and complex flavors.

Question 28

Carryover

Answer 28

Continue cooking that results from residual heat trapped within a food. Proteins are particularly susceptible to this

Question 29

Ingredient temperature

Answer 29

Cold or room temperature makes a huge difference in how something (meat, eggs, dairy) cooks. Always let meat come to room temperature before cooking to cook faster and be less likely to overcook. This temperature difference can matter more than the oven temperature

Question 30

Volatile aromatic molecules

Answer 30

Most aromatic and they evaporate into the surrounding air, smelling and tasting more compelling. More powerful when warm

Question 31

Warm food flavors

Answer 31

Sweet, bitter, umami are more intense when food is warmer: good for cheese and tomato, bad for beer

Question 32

Optimal food temperature for eating

Answer 32

Most food should be better warm or room temperature than hot; excessive heat burning taste buds or making it harder to distinguish the taste

Question 33

smoke

Answer 33

Most of its flavor is in its aroma, and is make up of gases, water vapor, and small particles resulting from a combustion. In food, smoke is a by-product of burning wood.

Question 34

What food absorbs from smoke

Answer 34

It absorbs the aromatic compounds similar to vanilla and cloves, and sweet, fruity, caramel, flowery, and bread flavor compounds caused by the chemical reactions caused by burning wood.

Question 35

primary decision regarding heat

Answer 35

Whether to cook food slowly over gentle heat, or quickly over intense heat. The easiest way to determine this is to consider tenderness; already tender food should be cooked as little as possible, food that needs to be made tender benefits from longer, more gentle cooking. Sometimes these cooking methods must be combined (browning and simmering meats, reverse for potatoes), to get browned outside and tender interior

Question 36

Cooking in the oven

Answer 36

The oven is the most imprecise heat source, fluctuating wildly. Pay attention to how the food is cooking to judge timing and doneness, and think of temperatures and cooking times as strong suggestions, not fixed rules, always check before the recipe says it should be done.

Question 37

aim of cooking with gentle heat

Answer 37

tenderness: to allow delicate foods (eggs, dairy, fish/shellfish) to retain their moisture and delicate texture, and to transform the dry and tough into the moist and tender. Is combined with intense heating methods for tough meats and starchy foods

Question 38

aim of cooking with intense heat

Answer 38

(except for boiling) is to brown food: when applied to tender meats, this leads to brown surfaces and moist, juicy interiors. Is combined with intense heating methods for tough meats and starchy foods

Question 39

gentle cooking methods list

Answer 39

simmer/coddling/poaching
steaming
stewing and braising
confit
sweating
Bain-marie
low-heat baking and dehydrating
slow-roasting, grilling, and smoking

Question 40

intense cooking methods list

Answer 40

blanching, boiling, reducing
sautéing, pan-frying, shallow/deep frying
searing
grilling and broiling
high-heat baking
toasting
roasting

Question 41

Boiling

Answer 41

cooking food through at a roiling boil is the exception rather than the rule. It is called for only when cooking vegetables, grains, and pasta; reducing sauces; hard-cooking eggs. Basically everything else can be brought to a boil and then simmered to cook through.

Question 42

simmering

Answer 42

it is gentler than boiling water and won’t make delicate foods fall apart or agitate tougher foods so that their exterior surface overcooks before cooking through completely. Anywhere between 180-205° and should look like a just poured glass of beer or champagne.

Question 43

heating sauces

Answer 43

Tomato sauce, curry, milk gravy, and mole sauce should be boiled and then simmered to cook through.

Question 44

heating dairy sauces

Answer 44

In general, keep sauces containing fresh milk at a simmer because some of the proteins can curdle about 180,° although milk sauces with flour are an exception to this rule, the flour interfering with coagulation. Sauces made from cream contain little to no protein and avoid this risk. However, the sugars in milk and cream are eager to scorch, to after the sauce has come to a boil, reduce to a simmer and stir frequently.

Question 45

simmering meat

Answer 45

Simmer cuts of meat with lots of connective tissue, such as chicken thighs, brisket, and pork shoulder, as the water and gentle heat with transform collagen into gelatin over time without drying out the exterior. For most floor, place in boiling, salted water, then turn it down to a simmer. For tasty meat and broth, start with simmering water, and add a few aromatics.

Question 46

Simmering starches

Answer 46

Starchy carbs have their tough skins rattled by a simmer, encouraging water to flow inside. Simmer potatoes, beans, rice, and grains until they’ve absorbed enough water (or flavorful stock) to be tender.

Question 47

Pasta simmering trick

Answer 47

Take the noodles from the boiling water a minute or two early and let them finish cooking in a pan of simmering sauce, absorbing flavor and releasing starches which thicken the sauce

Question 48

coddling and poaching

Answer 48

The water for poaching and coddling should look like a glass of champagne the next morning. This is perfect for delicate proteins: eggs, fish, shellfish, and tender meats. Coddling is more egg-specific and requires a container, unlike poaching, where the food is in the water.

Question 49

bain-marie

Answer 49

A water bath, which expands the narrow margin of error for cooking curds, custards, bread puddings, soufflés, and other delicate tasks such a melting chocolate.

Question 50

Bains-marie in the oven

Answer 50

Generally used to regulate heat; even if the oven temperature is at 350°, the temperature of the bath won’t exceed water’s boiling point of 212°. Be sure to keep carryover of residual heat in mind when cooking this way.

Question 51

how to bake in a Bain-marie

Answer 51

Boil water, put a wire rack in a roasting pan and put the ramekins/cake pan onto and then fill them with custard. Place in oven and pour in enough boiling water to 1/3 up the sides of the custards. Then bake until they jiggle faintly.

Question 52

stovetop bain-marie

Answer 52

For gentle heat on the stove it is heated by steam rather than hot water. Simple place a large bowl over a pot of barely simmering water. This will gentle heat eggs and dairy to room temperature for use in baking, to melt chocolate, and to make certain sauces that contain egg. Can also be used to keep foods warm before serving.

Question 53

braise v stew

Answer 53

braises involve larger pieces of meat, often on the bone, and minimal cooking liquid; stews are made with smaller pieces of meat cooked with chunky vegetables, typically served together in plentiful cooking liquid

Question 54

braise basics

Answer 54

brown the meat, create an aromatic base and brown vegetables, then deglaze meat and place on the vegetable base, then add the deglazing liquid and more water to come up 1/3-1/2 up the meat. Cover and boil, then simmer until the meat falls off the bone or is fork-tender. Strain the cooking liquid, pulse solids for thicker sauce. A day of rest adds flavor.

Question 55

blanching

Answer 55

is boiling by another name. Water must be kept at a rolling boil, so use twice as much as you think you need

Question 56

boiling vegetables

Answer 56

boil them long enough to let heat degrade their internal cell walls and release their sugars, and so that their starches can concert to sugars, developing sweetness, but not to long that their vibrant colors begin to fade or they become mushy.

Question 57

simple boiled vegetables

Answer 57

boil everyday vegetables like turnips, potatoes, carrots, and broccoli and dress them with good olive oil and flakey salt

Question 58

How to know when to pull a vegetables from the blanching water

Answer 58

You have to taste it, and be sure to have everything ready to remove the veggies from the water before putting them into the water in the first place

Question 59

Blanching and ___

Answer 59

to save time, blanch a vegetable and then combine that later with other cooking methods; blanch collards, squeeze them dry, chop them up, and sauté. Partially blanch denser veggies like cauliflower, carrots, and keep on hand for later in the week.

Question 60

Boiling whole grains

Answer 60

Boil barley, rice, farro, and quinoa by boiling like pasta, until they are completely tender. Drain and serve as a side dish or spread and let cool, the drizzle with olive oil and add to soups, grain salads, or for storage.

Question 61

Reducing

Answer 61

To intensify the flavor and thicken the texture of sauces, stocks, and soups by leaving them at a continuous boil. The seasonings won’t evaporate with the water so take care to avoid oversalting/overseasoning

Question 62

To speed up reduction

Answer 62

Use a wider, shallower pan, or into multiple pans. This can also help avoid the time spent reducing from changing the flavors too much

Question 63

steaming oven temperature

Answer 63

To steam a food in the oven, it requires a temperature of at least 450° (the temperature within the vessel will remain below 212° due to recycling water vapor.

Question 64

steaming and flavor

Answer 64

this cooking techniques efficiently cooks food while preserving clarity of flavor

Question 65

steamy sauté

Answer 65

Good for cooking dense vegetables like fennel or carrots: simmer vegetables in water, salt, aromatics and cooking fat until tender with lid ajar. Then pour out excess water and brown.

Question 66

cartoccio (it) or papillote (fr)

Answer 66

A parchment-paper package of fish, vegetables, mushrooms, or fruit, which has been steamed.

Question 67

Confit

Answer 67

Foods cooked slowly in fat at temperatures low enough to avoid browning. Famous for duck legs cooked in rendered duck fat. Can also be done with other meats and vegetables. Stores for a long time.

Question 68

Sweating

Answer 68

A gentle way of cooking vegetables in minimal fat until they are tender and translucent, without resulting in browning.

Question 69

Mirepoix

Answer 69

The aromatic combination of onions, carrots, and celery at the root of all French cooking. Is usually sweated

Question 70

Single vegetable soups (English pea, carrot, corn)

Answer 70

Sweet onions, add the vegetable. Cover with water, season with salt, bring to a boil, reduce to a simmer, remove from heat the moment the vegetables are cooked, chill put in ice bath, and purée and serve with a garnish.

Question 71

Stirrring and heat

Answer 71

Stirring tends to dissipate heat, so stir regularly when you want to prevent foods from browning, and with a wooden spoon, which of strong and soft

Question 72

To keep temperatures in the sweat zone

Answer 72

Watch the Pan closely. Add salt to draw water out of the vegetables, use a pan or pot with real sides to discourage steam from escaping, and use a lid if needed. Add a splash of water if you sense a brown spot starting to form

Question 73

frying

Answer 73

for deep, shallow, pan, stir, or pan frying, the concept is the same: preheat the pan and fat long enough so that food immediately begins to brown once it’s added, but regulate the temperature so that the food cooks through at the same rate its surface browns. Don’t overcrowd the pan.

Question 74

proteins and browning

Answer 74

Proteins will stick to the pan as they begin to cook. Leave fish, chicken, and meat for a few minutes and once they begin to brown they will release from the pan.

Question 75

sauté

Answer 75

from the French word “jump” and refers to using your wrist to flip food in the pan without a spatula. Sauté small foods that will cook through at the same speed their surfaces will brown

Question 76

sautéing and fat

Answer 76

Use minimal fat, just enough to barely coat the bottom of the pan

Question 77

to pan fry

Answer 77

use enough fat to generously clover the bottom of the pan (1/4 inch), and pan fry larger foods at a slightly lower heat than when sautéing because it takes longer to cook through. Do this with fish filets, steaks, porch chops, fried chicken.

Question 78

shallow and deep frying

Answer 78

Both ideal for cooking starchy vegetables or battered/breaded foods, and the methods are nearly identical.

Question 79

oil temperature and frying

Answer 79

Both shallow/deep frying call for 365° oil (except for chicken thighs, when the temperature should drop down to 325° after they’ve developed crust). The temperature of the oil should be just past the idea zone before adding the food, which will cause the temperature to drop. Make sure the pot isn’t overpacked, the foods aren’t touching and there is a single layer, or they’ll get soggy.

Question 80

searing

Answer 80

When a blazing hot cooking surface is used for the purpose more of browning than cooking. It can be penetrating enough to cook tender cuts of meat and fish, or can be used to brown the exterior of something before cooking through at gentle heat.

Question 81

number one rule of grilling

Answer 81

Never cook directly over the flames, which leave soot, unpleasant flavors, and carcinogens on food. Cook over smoldering coals and embers.

Question 82

Charcoal

Answer 82

Burns more slowly yet hotter than wood, and lump charcoal lends a delicious smoky flavor.

Question 83

gas v fire grills

Answer 83

gas grills don’t led smokiness to food and, since gas doesn’t burn as hot as wood or charcoal, can’t achieve the blazing-hot temperatures of live fires, so they aren’t able to brown food as quickly or efficiently.

Question 84

hard woods v soft woods and grilling

Answer 84

hard woods (almond, oak) catch fire quickly and burn slowly, so good for sustained heat. Fruit woods (grapevines, fig, apple, cherry) burn hot and fast and are great for quickly reaching browning temperatures. Soft woods leave bad flavors (no pine, spruce, or fir).

Question 85

direct heat and grilling

Answer 85

Use direct heat over hottest coal beds for the littles, most tender foods. Use cooler zones for cooking meats on the bone, larger cuts, chickens, sausages and fatty meats that cause flare-ups.

Question 86

indirect heat and grilling

Answer 86

Slow, gentle grilling also known as barbecue, and for smoking meat. The grill is essentially turned into an oven and kept between 200-300°.

Question 87

broiling

Answer 87

upside-down, indoor grilling. They can get even hotter than a typical grill and the food is closer to the heat. Also used to brown.

Question 88

tender meats and rest

Answer 88

It allows carryover to occur and allows the proteins a chance to relax. It retains water better, making it juicer.

Question 89

direction to cut meat

Answer 89

Cut meat against the grain, to shorten the fibers and make it more tender.

Question 90

oven spring

Answer 90

the initial increase in the volume of a baking dough because of water vaporizing into steam in the hot oven (high heat: 425° and up). This initial rise is generally the most substantial in the baking cycle.

Question 91

oven temperature categories

Answer 91

low: 175°-275°
medium-low: 275°-350°
medium-high: 350°-425°
high: 425° and up

Question 92

350° in oven

Answer 92

the middle C of baking. Hot enough to encourage browning but gentle enough to allow most food to cook through.

Question 93

low temperatures in oven

Answer 93

175°-275°
Offer enough heat to leaven and dry out meringues but are also gentle enough to prevent browning

Question 94

medium-low temperatures in oven

Answer 94

275°-350°
Most baked goods (cakes, cookies, brownies, pies and biscuits) prosper with the delicate heat. Proteins set, doughs and batters dry out (but not too much) and gentle browning ensues. Chewier and lighter gold than hotter temperature cooking.

Question 95

medium-high temperatures in oven

Answer 95

350°-425°
Lead to browning. Cook savory dishes through at medium-low temperatures, then crank them up to medium-high to develop golden-brown tops on gratins, lasagna, pot pies, and casseroles.

Question 96

high temperatures in oven

Answer 96

425° and up
Lead to rapid, though sometimes uneven, browning. Use high temperatures when achieving structure quickly is important, as it is for cream puffs and flaky crusts, and oven spring.

Question 97

dehydrating

Answer 97

is baking at the lowest possible temperatures, to remove water from food without reaching browning temperatures.

Question 98

toasting

Answer 98

350° to 450°
For thin slices of bread for toppings, toast at 350° to avoid drying them out.
Thicker slices can be toasted at high heat (up to 450°)
Going much higher risks imprecision and burning, so go lower to get the luxury of time.

Question 99

Slow-roasting, grilling, smoking

Answer 99

200-300 degrees
Meats and fish that are rich in fat can be cooking slowly in the oven or on the grill at very low temperatures so that their own fats render and moisten them from within.

Question 100

Difference between roasting and toasting

Answer 100

Roasting implies browning on the surface of a food while roasting also cooks food through. Originally, roasting referred to cooking meat on a spot above or beside the fire; what we know as roasting today -cooking meat in a dry, hot oven- used to be called baking until 200 years ago.

Question 101

Radiant heat

Answer 101

Is emitted by the heating element in the oven and dries out exposed food as it cooks them, leading to crisp dry skin on chicken.

Question 102

Convection oven

Answer 102

One or two fans consistently circulate hot air so food browns, dries out, and cooks more quickly than in a conventional oven. When using convection reduce the temperature by 25 degrees or monitor with extra vigilance.

Question 103

conduction

Answer 103

The surface of any food touching hot metal, the principle at work in stovetop frying. Food cooking on a pan in the oven will cook with radiant heat and conduction creating an uneven result, unless cooked on a wire rack or flipped and moved.

Question 104

oven browning

Answer 104

This gains momentum, so start food that must brown quickly at high temperatures and then turn the oven down as browning begins to prevent overcooking. If browning happens too quickly, turn down the temperature, loosely cover the dish with foil, and move the rack away from the heating element.

Question 105

Roasting vegetables

Answer 105

Make 400° the default temp, but change it as needed. Don’t pack things too closely, or they’ll steam and get soggy. For even browning, leave space and stir, rotate, and change racks. Don’t combine vastly different vegetable types on the same tray; they won’t cook evenly.

Question 106

Roasting meat types

Answer 106

Well-marbled, tender cuts of meat such as prime rib and portion loin are ideal for roasting because they’re juice enough to stand up to the fry heat of the oven.

Question 107

Roasting meat types

Answer 107

Well-marbled, tender cuts of meat such as prime rib and portion loin are ideal for roasting because they’re juice enough to stand up to the fry heat of the oven.

Question 108

Roasting meat temperatures

Answer 108

Start room-temperature roasts in a hot oven (400 to 425 degrees) and then gradually decrease the temperature in 25 degree installments after browning commences, until done. Going to hot will cause rendering fat to smoke (after rendering, cook meat at temperatures below 375, the common smoke point)

Question 109

Layering heat

Answer 109

Using more than one type of heat to get the needed results. Break the cooking process into chunks so you can finish cooking delicate things at the time of serving (preventing overcooking). Slow cooked foods can be reheated. Layering cooking can also get tasty contrasts: crispy and tender.

Question 110

sputter

Answer 110

sizzling that has lowed and become more pronounced and aggressive, a sign that there could be too much fat present and needs to get taken out of the pan