Health psychology Flashcards
(213 cards)
1
Q
BIOLOGICAL STRESS SYSTEMS.
What is the parasympathetic system used for
A
Quick response, happens automatically, used to conserve energy for the fight or flight response. Does things like dilating pupils, speeding heart rate, slowing digestion.
2
Q
What is the parasympathetic system used for
A
Countering and trying to get back to homeostasis, also happens automatically. does things like speeds digestion, stimulates saliva flow, slows heart rate
3
Q
What happens in the SAM response
A
Stress activates the sympathetic nervous system
Which activates the adrenal medulla
Which releases adrenaline and noradrenaline
Which does things like speed up perspiration and respiration.
4
Q
How does the HPAC response go
A
Stress activates the hypothalamus,
Which activates the pitutary gland
Which activates the adreno cortex
Which releases corticosteroids such as cortisol
Which does thing like increase energy, suppresses the immune and the inflammatory response
5
Q
What is the main difference between the SAM and the HPAC
A
The sam is electrical response which uses nerves to happen quickly, and is over pretty quickly too. The HPAC is a wet system that is to do with actual hormones in the blood. It takes longer and lasts longer, cortisol in the blood long after the stressor is over.
6
Q
What is one biological model of stress. And who suggested it?
A
Walter Cannon- said that the SAM is used for immediate threats. The fight of flight response. Evolution- we needed it to run away from predators etc
7
Q
What does Selye’s say about the biological models of stress?
A
Claims that the HPAC response is experienced in the exact same way, no matter what the stressor is. this is the problem when it comes to the link between stress and illness. The HPAC is a more adaptive system which reacts to learned threats. Which are threatening in a symbolic way
8
Q
What is the endocrine system
A
Linked to the HPAC, made up of ductless glands which transport hormones. Regulated by hypothalamus and pituitary gland
9
Q
What is Selyes general adaptation syndrome
A
1) Stress activates the hypothalamus, which releases corticotrophin releasing factor.
2) Which activates the pituitary gland, which releases ACTH.
3) Which activates the adrenal cortex, which releases corticosteroids.
4) This acts on the hypothalamus to stop it releasing ACTH. Thus you become resistant to stress
10
Q
Criticisms of Selye’s and Cannon
A
- only take into account the physiological effects to stress, not the importance of psychological.
- only looks at what happens after stress is experienced, not in anticipated stress
- not all stress responses are this uniform, affected by gender, personality, biology
11
Q
How does stress effect the immune system.
A
Acute stress causes certain types of cells to prepare to fight illness or injury. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are released and have positive effects. After a while, this becomes prolonged and they can cause tissue damage and risk of disease
12
Q
Two steps to how stress and immune system create a dangerous pattern
A
1) Stress causes the immune system to become disregulated
2) Disregulated immune system changes the way our bodies experience stress
13
Q
What else can stress do to the body?
A
Shorten telomeres.
14
Q
What are telomeres
A
They are the caps on our chromosomes which protect our DNA
15
Q
How does stress shorten them
A
Telomeres are responsible for protecting our dna integrity, if they are shorter, the cells can’t be replicated as well as the integrity is damaged so it creates effects like ageing!
16
Q
What did ‘rhymes with worry, sounds like mummy’ paper offer regarding the physiological effects of stress
A
‘rhymes with worry, sounds like mummy’ Those who experience stress early have an exaggerated immune response to stress. Poverty, abuse has long and short term effects on the immune system.
17
Q
What did they find when looking at children who had been abused
A
Children have low levels of cytokines (which control the immune response). When immune cells are tested in vitro, abused children released more inflammatory cytokines, which are harmful to the immune response over time.
18
Q
PSYCHOLOGICAL MODELS OF STRESS.
What is stress defined as?
A
A negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable changes that can be either biochemical, cognitive, behavioural or physiological.
19
Q
What is the Tend and Befriend and who made it up ‘best friend squad’
A
Taylor 2006- found that women experience stress differently to men. They have more oxytocin in their blood and are more likely to reach out for support than to go into fight or flight mode, it down-regulates it. We have adapted to care for our offspring
20
Q
Critical point to do with this
A
Not all women have high and not all men have low. Not so clean cut
21
Q
What sort of behaviours are demonstrated in the tend and befriend
A
Affiliative behaviours
22
Q
What happens when your affiliative behaviours are reected
A
Then oxytocin has been shown to actually exasperate the stress response
23
Q
Two general findings that support the tend and befriend
A
- Animals with more oxytocin are calmed, more social and paternal/maternal.
- Under stress, women are more likely than men to reach out.
24
Q
‘cardio-I swear I am SOOO not bothered!’
A
Cardioso et al., 2013- double blind experiment where ppts were given a social rejection paradigm (someone says they wouldn’t want to work with you) and then administered oxytocin or weren’t. Results showed that IF you reported negative mood after the paradigm and given ocytocin, you reported higher trust. But if you weren’t negatively affected by the paradigm them it made no difference. Shows it works on stress specifically
25
How does Taylor say the effects of oxytocin can be seen in real life?
Babies crying is a display of affiliation behaviours. The system they used it dependent on oxytocin.
26
Second example?
Women who reported relationship distress had higher levels of oxytocin. Those with high levels also more likely to describe their partners as unsupportive etc
27
How is stress defined in the cognitive transactional model?
Stress is a relationship between person and environment, in which that person has appraised as being taxing or exceeding their resources and endangering their well-being
28
'4, hore, situation with laz didnt get me good appraisal'
Lazaurs and Folkman- 1984. Stress is in the eye of the beholder
29
Describe the cognitive transactional model
1) Primary Appraisal- first evaluation of the situation.
2) Secondary appraisal- evaluation of ability to cope
3) Reappraisal- continue to adapt or modify negative emotions using new information
30
What is the difference between prim and second
Secondary is where the coping strategies come into play. During primary, the event has happened. You're looking back at it. Past oriented. Secondary is future oriented, you are looking forward.
31
RECAP- what are the 3 biological reactions to stress
1- confrontative action (fight)
2- withdrawal from threat (flight)
3- seek support (tend and befriend)
32
Define coping
Process of managing the discrepancy between threat and the resources we have. It is an ongoing process of appraisal and reappraisal (not static)
33
What are the two types of coping efforts?
action-oriented or intra-psychic
34
Lazarus and Folkman study procedure-
Looked at student taking an exam in 3 periods and assess coping styles in each. Anticipatory stage, waiting stage and outcome stage.
35
What were the results
coping styles changed during period. went from problem based to emotion based because there is no point using problem based when you've already given up control (taken the exam)
36
Critical point of this study
they assessed stress based on solid things like support network, which can't be used to assess changes in actual coping style
37
what are the 3 types of social support
emotional support, informational support and tangible/practical support
38
STUDYING STRESS
How is stress measured? 4 ways
Self-report, behavioural, physiological measures (heart rare, blood pressure), biochemical markers (cortisol, catecholamines)
39
'co-operate and tell us your stress'
Cohen's stress scale- 10-15 items, quick and easy but not objective although it does correlate with other measures! taps into cog transactional because it talks about how they FEEL. its not the stressor, its the reactions to the stressor.
40
'homes, how much has changed in yours?'
Holmes-Rahe- scored people on 'life change units' in the past year and how stressful they'd rate it. score under 100- low stress. over 300- high stress. found that those with more life change units have more health issues. good because records objective and subjective measures
41
Problems with these scales
some events are stressful for some but others. things like divorce. outdated to say thats the worst thing ever. should be updated to include current things like terrorism, politics etc
42
Inducing disease; 'you feel as cold as stone when you have a cold' procedure:
Stone, 1992- gave 100 students the cold virus in a nasal spray, and had them record stressful events. those with more events, more likely to get colds
43
What did cohen conclude about stressors
the length is more important than the severity
44
lab experiments, what are the 3 paradigms used
record stressful event (ecological validity because you experience stressor as you recall, people may not be imagining equally stressful events though), do a stress paradigm (public speaking etc) and imagine a stressful event- leave open ended as otherwise they go into secondary appraisal
45
difference between chronic and acute stress
acute: single, non-recurring, activates SAM and the paraSAM. chronic- repeated, persistent- either goes on too long or is ruminated on too long. delays return to homeostasis and activates the HPAC
46
what are the consequences of acute stress?
colds, flu
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what are the consequences of chronic stress?
dysregulation of the inflammatory response, causes risk of CVD, diabetes, Alzheimer's.
48
why might not all things cause chronic stress to some?
stress is in the eye of the beholder !!!!
49
'when dan ignores me he goes from being a(cute) to being a chronic asshole' what was his suggestions?
Smyth, 2013- acute goes to chronic if:
1) you have a delayed return to homeostasis (its prolonged)
2) you have slow or no adaptation to the stressor (perceive it as a threat even when it is present)
3) the acute stressor is repeatedly activated
50
what else did smyth say about stress?
its not the stressor- its you! stressors being acute or chronic is a continuum not 2 set stages
51
definition of chronic stress with this in mind
'the interplay between external and internal resources. its self-generated and contributes to continued appraisal'
52
'persevere and you will finally get your shot!' what did this guy say about chronic stress?
Brosschot, 2006- we have 'perseverative cognitions' which refers to repeated/chronic activation of the mental REPRESENTATOINS of the stressors!
53
how are we different to animals in the way that we experience stress?
animals will run away from a stressor and not think about it again, we ruminate on what could have been
54
'mccullough from OITNB had stressful weeks and defo lots of cortisol at her job' what did this study into the effects of rumination do?
McCullough, 2007- 125 undergraduate students had to self-report rumination, fear and anger and then measured their cortisol at baseline and after 2 weeks
55
what were mccullough's results?
those who ruminate more, had higher cortisol levels
56
what did Brosschot say about rumination?
perseveration hypothesis- ruminating on many stressors has dire health consequences
57
'flet, stop fretting over eveything!!!' what did they define perfectionism as
Flet et al., 1998- frequent cognitions about the attainments of ideal standards
58
Flet et al., study?
found that perfectionism was associated with stress, worry and rumination
59
COPING AND SELF-COMPASSION.
'Taylors squad' what did they say about stress and coping?
our resources to fight stress can be internal, external or social. social support and coping style can diminish the relationship between stress and illness
60
what is the cycle of coping styles and stress
Coping styles modify how you view stress and how you view stress modifies how you EXPERIENCE it
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two types of coping:
emotion based and problem based
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what can they also be based in
avoidance or approach based
63
what happens with chronic/acute stress when avoidance is used
chronic and avoidance= higher stress. acute and avoidance= could be helpful at times
64
'carver reminds me of christmas which is defo something i have to cope with lol' how do we measure peoples coping styles?
carver 1997- the COPE scale. distinguishes between avoidance and acceptance based coping.
65
who coined and defined self compassion
Kristen Neff- 2003- kind and understanding towards oneself during times of pain or failure, rather than being harshly self-critical
66
what are the 3 components of self compassion
self kindness, common humanity, mindfulness
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what are the opposites
self criticism, isolation and over-identification. all cause rumination and make a stressor chronic
68
what are the two types of self compassion
trait self compassion- constantly reacting to things in self compassionate ways. state- can be trained, reminded and learnt
69
research into self-compassion and self reported stress. 'brienne the LGBT icon'
Brion- self compassionate HIV patients reported less anxiety, guilt and stress.
70
'be kind to yourself and you won't feel weary!' general finding
Allen and Leary, 2010- self compassion is associated with lower self perceived stress
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Neff and Garmer 2013 findings
self compassion interventions decrease self reported stress
72
‘women arch their back in yoga- a practice for self compassion, physical effects’ what did this study find about self compassion and objective measures of stress
Arch 2014- women were given a self-compassion training and then looked at physiological effects. results showed ones with the intervention had ore adaptive parasympathetic heart rate activity with better heart rate variability. and lower SAM reactivity (shown through saliva alpha amylate)
73
what are allen and leary's 6 coping mechanisms?
1. positive cognitive reframing
2. avoidance and escape
3. distraction
4. proactive coping
5. problem solving
6. seeking support
74
Taylor et al., what else can help and why?
relaxation techniques like yoga- the biofeedback restores the parasympatheic nervous system because its aiming to reduce hyperarousal or curb emotional-physiological reactivity
75
'B.A.R- they were all barking mad' how do these people define mindfulness?
Brown and Ryan, 2003- systematic training in meditation to help people self-regulate their reaction to stress and any resulting negative emotions'
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what is mindfulness based on
the idea of becoming more aware of the present moment and therefore less distracted by distressing thoughts and feelings that arise in response to a stressor.
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what does mindfulness based stress reduction focus on?
learning to approach situations mindfully rather than automatically
78
'students need to get in devibeeeee' what did this study do to investigate mindfulness?
DeVibe- 288 students took a 7 week mindfulness course. they were testing to see if mental distress, study stress, burnout, subjective well-being and mindfulness improved. also did a 5 facet questionnaire which tested non-reacting, non-judging, act with awareness, observe and describe aspects to mindfulness
79
what were the results?
effects were only found in females and only for mental distress and subjective well being. and it only helped the non-reacting part
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why do you think this was?
maybe mindfulness more accessible in women. those who engaged more and went to more sessions did better, maybe women are lower in self compassion and this is why you see the biggest effect
81
HEALTH PROMOTION
what is WHO's definition of health promotion
the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, health
82
through what can it happen
individual efforts, legislation, medical system, media
83
what are the 3 types of disease prevention
1) primary prevention- seatbelts, vaccines, avoiding in the first place
2) secondary prevention- catching it as quickly as poss, screenings
3) tertiary prevention- dealing with it properly post diagnosis- visiting specialist
84
diff between health behaviours and health habits
habits are automatic and engage without thinking. behaviours are modifiable risk factors that we do to maintain health
85
what 2 categories do health behaviours fall under?
wellness, health maintenance and enhancement and accident control
86
vickers study
```
separated into 2 categories.: Proper sleep
Avoid bad foods
Take vitamins
Check-ups at the dentist and doctors
Watch weight
Supplements
```
Accident control:
Seat belts
87
why is it so difficult to change them?
theyre so engrained. all the education in the world cant help sometimes.
88
the intention behaviour gap theory
intentions are the proximal predictor of health behaviours. some dont even have the intention and thats what we should be focusing on! Ajzen
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implementation intentions theory
gollwitzer- we need if, then rules to relate to specific environmental triggers
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transtheoretical change model
prochaska-
1) pre contemplation
2) contemplation
3) preparation
4) action
5) maintenance
6) relapse
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why is pre contemplation so key
we need to be focusing on those who aren't even in contemplation as they are the ones that need help!
92
'explore your castle and look forward out of the turrets' what did this study say about interventions to change
hardcastle- said that all the research focuses on the intention behaviour gap but we should be concentrating on the intention maintenance gap as that is more key. its so normal to lapse on goals and we should be focusing on making people comfortable enough to continue after they fail
93
'determined to be doing stuff constantly' what did this study offer to hardcastle's paper
Deci and Ryan- self-determination theory. to get people to change we need to take them from 'amotivation- deregulated' to 'intrinsic motivation- internal regulatory style
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what does self-determination theory focus on doing?
1) you are the author of your own actions
2) you are doing these thing because the environment allows you to
3) we do things because we truly want to
95
what does motivating the unmotivated come down to?
ultimately its about resolving temporal dilemmas, choosing the distal reward over the immediate one by overriding stimulus/cue driven impulses.
96
what is the problem with temporal dilemmas and motivation
we often shift responsibility onto our future selves
97
hardcastle study
found that to motivate, we need to do
1) values exploration, get them to recalibrate their goals with their actions
2) looking forward- look to the future with or without the health change
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how does manipulating how we view ourselves in time help health behaviours? 'sirois, shucard and hirsh' study into future self continuity and health behaviours
had people rate their future self continuity and motivations to change, and then primed people with either a future success of a future failure intervention.
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results
regardless of whether it was success or failure, people felt closer to their futures selves after the interventions- and it increase their motivation to change!
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general conclusion for health promotion interventions
its not as simple as intention, action and sustained changed, there is procrastination and abandonment along the way
101
how can we get better at not giving up when we relapse then
S E L F - C O M P A S S I O N
102
'Bieber is all hippy vibes now' what did this study find about self compassion and behaviour change
Bieber and ellis 2018- self compassion is as effective as any other behaviour change at improving self-regulation
103
‘baumeister from mario bros- youd be so pissed off if you lost!' what did this study tell you about why self-compassion works for behaviour change
Baumeister and Heatherton, self compassion works by regulating the negative feelings, meaning you can continue to monitor goals and control impulses.
104
Sirois and Hirsh study into self continuity and self compassion
people who were working on health behaviour changes were given self-compassionate responses, nd some were given neutral. found that giving a self-compassionate response changed their self continuity and their self compassion
105
model of why self compassion works for health behaviours
if people arent compassionate, they respond to failures with negative mood, which equals poor self-regulation, if you have SC, you get positive mood and then good self-regulation, which leads to motivation and health behaviours
106
the 3 overarching ways SC happens. main things in the module basically
self compassion works in 3 ways
1) it reduces stress, which makes you do more health behaviours
2) it means better coping, which makes you do more health behaviours
3) it causes positive mood, which means better self-reg, which means more health behaviours!
107
GOAL PRIMING BEHAVIOUR
how much of the uk is obese according to public health england
63%
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what is an obesogenic environment 'swimming burns and we arent encouraged to do it'
'Swinburn et al., 1999) presence of cues encouraging the constant consumption of food. and not encouraging physical activity
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what did swinburn say about obesity
it is the result of people reacting normally to the obesogenic environment
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'freshers want to get laid sonnnn' study into individual differences in response to the obesogenic environment
finlayson et al., 2012- weighed freshers at start, 3 months in and 12 months in at uni. found some lost, some gained, some maintained
111
what can this tell us and why is it an important result
that people vary in susceptibility of food cues. this result shows that we should always look outside the mean because it can tell us a lot!
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so who are the ones more susceptible? 'levine rhymes with mean cos this is so mean of the world’
its actually the restrained eaters and the dieters. Why are they restrained eaters? Because they’re more susceptible to the cues!
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‘sounds like pepper, they’re the ones who would appreciate it’.
Tepper 1991- restrained eaters salivate more when viewing palliative foods
114
rhymes with 'poor babies, i feel sorry for us :(‘
Papies et al., 2006- showed restrained and unrestrained eaters food words in a flash. then showed food words or non-words. found that those who were restrained were quicker to say food words if previously shown food words. non restrained eaters werent effected
115
'feds, andrew lied about the pizza express thing'
Fedoroff et al., restrained eaters ate more after being exposed to the smell of pizza
116
'strobes would be a v obvious cue' outline goal conflict theory
1) weight control goal and eating enjoyment cannot exist at the same.
2) environmental cues decide which one wins at any given time
3) happens outside conscious awareness
4) cues only affect those with food related goals
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what is goal priming
environmental cues activate goals, and these goals affect your cognitions and behaviour
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how did stroebe explain overreating
cues activates goals, pizza smell activates the eating enjoyment goal and inhibits the weight control goal
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what are weight control goals
weight mags
scaled
diet words
diet foods
120
what was bruner's hypothesis and what study did it lead to
Bruner, 1957- functional size perception hypothesis. if your eating enjoyment goal is activated, you percieve palatable foods as larger
121
'coningsby, the jets look smaller than they are from far away' what did this study find to do with this hypothesis?
Van Koningsbruggen, 2011- primed participants with a food or a neutral (gardening) mag, then showed them a muffin and had to estimate the size. restrained eaters perceived the muffin as larger if they had been primed with the food mag. unrestrained eaters not affected
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critical point of van koningsbruggen
only looks at perception, not behaviour
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'i used to go on diets with jess' what did this study find about goal priming and actual behaviour?
Buckland et al., 2014- 67 dieting or non dieting women. gave a standardised lunch and then shown weight control or neutral cues and given snacks. restrained eaters ate less when shown the weight control cues.
124
'paps chicken and ham pie' what did this study do/find?'
Papies and Hamstra, 2010- tempting smell of chicken, poster or no poster, restrained eaters ate less when poster present. unrestrained, no difference
125
what did buckland conclude about studies into this?
Buckland 2018- lots of methodological issues in many study
126
Physical activity- Wyrobeck and Chen, 2002 study
Wyrobeck and Chen, 2002- 48 females created sentences with exercise words or non-words and got told to go upstairs. control condition- 14 stairs, 14 lift. exercise condition- 22 took stairs!
127
why is goal priming different to old interventions for weight managment
rather than working on conscious, deliberate processes, it's looking at automatic, unconscious, subliminal ones using goal activation.
128
how does Papies say it works
Papies, 2016-
1) modify the situation
- individuals
- cues
- timing
- behaviours
2) modify the cognitions
- this is where we create new associations. mental links between cues and weight management instead of eating enjoyment
129
what are some critical thoughts
acute studies- are we seeing novel effects?
mostly lab based- which is why papies and hamstra was good.
what happens when there are multiple, competing goals
its only effective in those who want to change (could this be where self-determination theory comes in)
130
CHRONIC ILLNESS- ADHERENEC
How does the US national centre of health statistics define chronic illness
illness that persists for more than 3 months. cant be prevented by vaccines or cured. because of this, the focus is usually on illness management
131
how much of chronic healh conditions are accounted for by which 7 risk factors
60%-
1) smoking
2) poor diet
3) inactivity
4) raised blood pressure
5) cholesterol
6) overweight/obese
7) drinking
132
how many deaths does the department of health say they cause
2 out of 3 premature deaths
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what are the costs to the individual for chronic illness.
2-3 times more likely to have depression/anxiety. department of health says 25% have some sort of activity restriction
134
cost for the NHS
7 out of 10 pounds goes on them. 50% of all gp appointments
135
how does living with a CI impact peoples lives
negatively impacts their goals and mental well-being
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why is it akin to living with a chronic stressor
it has daily functional limitations which make you less likely to adhere to medical reccomendations
137
'grenard, living with this is so fucking HARD' why does it make you less likely to adhere
Grenard et al., 2011- 1.76 times more likely not to adhere if you are depressed
138
why is adherence to CI generally very poor?
the psychological impacts of CI-
1) impact of actual illness- adjustment and coping
2) impact of outcomes- disability or death
3) impact of treatment and management
4) impact of interventions
139
what is adherence, defintion?
the degree to which a patient carries out behaviours recommended by healthcare professionals
140
what is creative nonadherence
when patients modify it on their own terms- dont finish antibiotics for example
141
'mumma acts like a lion when georgia gets told she is not adhering' reasons for not adhering?
Muma and Lyons, 2015=
Treatment related-
complicated treatment programme
side effects
interferes with lifestyle
Prescriber related-
doctor doesnt spot it
bad relationship
lack of resources/time
```
Patient related-
low ses
impaired cognition
low literacy/knowledge
denial
physical capacity
```
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how does the theory of planned behaviour explain non-adherence. 'if i found an alternative to TPB i'd be rich'
Rich et al., 2015- meta-analysis to see which part of TPB can predict adherence. found that intention was associated (small to moderate effect)- people are intending! PBC also had to be realistic
143
how can self compassion bridge this gap? how does it work on the self-regulation model
self regulation model says you have a discrepancy between ideal and current state. awareness of discrepancy creates anger and frustration. if you have self compassion, it can be corrective and close that gap
144
'siriously hurt' study into self compassion and health conditions
Sirious and Hirsch, 2019- looked at self compassion in people with
1) fibromalgya 1 and 2
2) cancer
3) cancer survivors
4) PTSD
5) chronic fatigue
found that self-compassion had a significant correlation with adherence
145
why do we think this is?
self-compassion lowers stress, stress improves self-reg, self reg improves health behaviours like adherence
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how did they take this study further?
wanted to see if lower stress could explain the associations and found that low stress accounts for 11% of adherence
147
CHRONIC ILLNESS 2- SELF-COMPASSION
How does being stress effect health behaviours
When stressed, youre in a 'negative state'.
this causes the amygdala to direct towards threat
emotion based coping leads you to do things to relieve the negative feeling like eating choc or smoking
148
what does being in a positive psychological state improve
gratitude, life satisfaction and general well-being
149
'who who have CHD but arent angry at themselves for it'
Sin et al., 2015- looked at positive affect and health behaviours across 5 years in ppl with CHD. examined their psychological states and their health behaviours at baseline and 5 years later.
150
why did they feel the need to do this study
past research on states and CHD had contradictory findings, some found as link between incidence and SC but others found null
151
what were the results of this study
more positive affect= more health protective behaviours
152
critical point for this study
they did look at baselines states and didnt get the same associations, this could mean that changes in affect and changes in behaviour are just co-occuring. doesnt necessarily mean causation. they are partially related at least
153
studies into self compassion and chronic illness. 'brienne, LGBT'
Brion et al 2014., found less anxiety, guilt and stress in HIV patients if they had self-compassion
154
'eicki- they didnt feel like this about their body!'
Przezdzeicki et al., found less body image related destress in breast cancer patients with SC
155
'they could eat Friis!'
Friis et al., 2015- diabetic people with SC actually had better blood sugar levels
156
'dont take life too siriously' what did this study find about SC and coping strategies?
Sirois et al., 2015- 155 IBD and 164 arthritis patients. Predicted more coping self-efficacy and healthy styles. results showed those with SC had more instrumental coping, positive reframing, acceptance and less behaviour disengagement and self blame.
157
Walter Cannon-
the SAM is used for immediate threats, it prepares for fight or flight which evolutionarily we needed for things like running away from animals etc
158
Hans Selyes-
claims that the HPAC response is experienced by the body in the exact same way, regardless of the actual stressor. This is the more adaptive system that reacts to learned threats, stimulus that isn’t considered threatening but is in a symbolic way
159
Morey et al., 2015:
Those who experience stress early, more likely to have exaggerated response in immune system to stress. Some more at risk of chronic inflammation.
Early life stress- poverty, abuse etc, long and short term effects on immune system. Children have low levels of cytokines (which control immune response). When immune cells are tested in vitro, those abused released more inflammatory cytokines, which can be harmful to the immune response over time.
160
TAYLOR, 2006 ‘
Found that the fight or flight response can be down regulated by the stress hormone oxytocin. Women have higher levels of it than men because we have evolved for caring for offspring.
161
Cardioso et al, 2013
Procedure: Double blind experiments, 100 participants were given a social rejection paradigm, and then either administered oxytocin or weren’t.
Results: Those who’d been given oxytocin- if you were more negatively affected by the social paradigm, and given oxytocin, you reported higher trust levels. But, if you weren’t that affected by the negative social interaction, it had no effect on trust. This shows it works on stress specifically.
162
Lazarus and Folkman 1984 theory
Primary appraisal- first evaluation of the situation
Secondary appraisal- evaluation of ability to cope
Reappraisal- either continue to adapt, or modify negative emotions using new information
163
Laz and Folkman study
Procedure: Assessed emotions in students taking exams during:
Anticipatory stage
Waiting stage
Outcome stage
Results: Found that coping styles changed during the periods. In anticipatory stage it was problem-based coping, but after that there is no point using that because the exam has already been done. So they used emotion-based coping after that.
164
Cohen, 1988
Perceived stress scale. 10-15 items, quick and easy but not objective. However, it has been shown to correlate with other measures! Taps into cognitive transactional measure as its not about the stressors its about the reactions
165
Holmes-Rahe,
Scores people on how many ‘life change units’ they have had in the past year and how stressful they rated it. Found that those with more had more health issues.
Getting a score under 100- v low stress, over 300- very high stress and risk of health issues
166
Stone, 1992 ‘
Exposed students to the cold virus, found that the ones who got colds has reported more stressful events than those hadn’t
167
Smyth, 2013-
he suggested that stressors can go from being acute to chronic if:
You have a delayed return to homeostasis
If you have slow or no adaptation to the stressor
The acute stressor is repeatedly activated
He said that its not the stressor, its you! And stressors being acute or chronic is on a continuum and not 2 set stages.
168
Brosschot, 2006:
we have perseverative cognitions which refers to repeated/chronic activation of the mental REPRESENTATIONS of the stressors
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McCullough, 2007:
Procedure: 115 undergraduates self-report rumination, fear and anger levels and then measured their cortisol, measured again over 2 weeks.
Results: those who ruminate more, had higher cortisol levels
170
Flet et al., 1998
Definition: frequent cognitions about the attainments of ideal standards- Flet at al., 1998- ‘flet rhymes with threat’
Flet et al., 1998- found that perfectionism is associated with stress, worry and rumination
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Taylor, Sirois and Molnar, 2016
External resources, social support and coping style can diminish the relationship between stress and illness.
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Carver, 1997-
the COPE scale. Distinguishes between avoidant and acceptance based coping.
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Kristen Neff, 2003
Self compassion definition. Kind and understanding stance towards oneself in instances of pain or failure, rather than being harshly self-critical.
174
Brion, 2014
More self compassion showed less guilt, stress and anxiety in HIV patients
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Allen and Leary, 2010
self compassion is associated with lower perceived stress.
176
Neff and Garmer, 2013
self compassion interventions successfully decrease self reported stress.
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Arch et al., 2014-
Procedure: brief self compassion training women.
Results: women had a lower physiological effects to stress after the intervention, compared to the control group.
HRV- more adaptive parasympathetic system reactivity. Responded quicker
Saliva alpha amylate- lower SAM reactivity
Chose women because they have less self-compassion than men.
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Allen and Leary:
Positive cognitive reconstructing (positive reappraisal)
Problem solving (problem based coping)
Seeking support (emotional social support)
Distraction
Escape and avoidance
Proactive coping
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Taylor, Sirois and Molnar- 2016
Relaxation techniques like yoga can help bc the biofeedback restores the parasympathetic nervous system. Because they are aiming to reduce hyperarousal or curb emotional-physiological reactivity
180
Brown and Ryan, 2003
definition of mindfulness: ‘systematic training in meditation to help people self-regulate their reaction to stress and any resulting negative emotions’
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DeVibe:
Procedure: 288 students took a 7 week mindfulness stress reduction course. Was an intervention and a control group. Were testing for mental distress, study stress, burnout, subjective well-being, and mindfulness.
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Then did a 5 facet questionnaire to see if mindfulness had increased:
Non-reacting
Non-judging
Act with awareness
Observe
Describe
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Results: effects only found in females for mental distress and subjective well being. But no effect was found for burn out. And it only helped the non-reacting part of the questionnaire.
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WHO, 1986
‘the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, health’
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Vickers, Conway and Hervig, 1990
Wellness, Health maintenance and Enhancement:
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Proper sleep
Avoid bad foods
Take vitamins
Check-ups at the dentist and doctors
Watch weight
Supplements
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Accident control:
Seat belts
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Ajzen-
The intention-behaviour gap;
Intentions are the proximal predictor of health behaviours. Some people don't even have intentions to perform health behaviours
185
Gollwitzer 2004-
Implementation intentions
Gollwitzer 2004- if, then, rules are needed to relate to specific environmental triggers
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Prochaska, 2005
Prochaska, 2005- your intentions are on a continuum and the type of help you recieve must depend on the stage you’re in!
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Pre-contemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Relapse
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187
Hardcastle, 2015-
2 ways to help this-
Values exploration, get people to recalibrate their behaviours to match their actions
‘Looking forward’ to consider either a future WITH the health behaviour change or a future WITHOUT them.
188
Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000-
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY. Need to move people along this spectrum
Amotivation, non-regulation style
Intrinsic motivation and internal regulatory style
Self determination theory tells you
We are the authors of our decisions/actions
We do things because we truly want to
We make our choices because our environment allows us to do so
189
Sirois, Shucard and Hirsch, 2014-
Procedure: ppts rated future self-continuity and their motivations to change, before and after an intervention that was either:
Future self successful (imagining self with the health behaviour change)
Future self failure (imaging self without the health behaviour change)
No intervention
Results: regardless of whether the intervention was success or failure based, made people feel closer to their future selves. AND, it made people increase their motivation to change!
190
Bieber and Ellis, 2018-
self-compassion techniques are equally as effective as other behaviour changes at improving self-regulation.
191
Baumeister and Heatherton 1996-
self-compassion works by helping you regulate the negative feelings you have about yourself, meaning you can continue to monitor goals and control impulses.
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Sirois and Hirsch-
people who were trying to work on health behaviours were given a self-compassionate response. Control condition had a response with no prompt.
Results: SC response changed their self continuity and their self compassion.
193
Sirois, Kitner and Hirsch, 2015-
Procedure: 15 samples= over 3000 people. Meta-analysis looking at the association between self-compassion and health behaviours.
Results: significant correlation of r=.25, found that positive and negative mood was an explanatory factor of why this was found!
194
Swinburn et al., 1999
Obesogenic environment refers to the presence of cues that are associated with high energy foods and the absence of cues that encourage physical exercise.
Swinburn et al., 1999- obesity is the result of people reacting normally to the obesogenic environment they find themselves in’
195
Finlayson et al., 2012-
Recorded first years weight at the start, 3 months in and after 12 months at uni.
Results: some lost, some gained, and some remained. Shows that some are more suseptible then others!
196
Lowe and Levine, 2005
the ones who are most susceptible are actually the ‘restrained eaters’ and the ‘dieters’
197
Tepper, 1991
Restrained eaters salivate more when viewing palliative foods.
198
Papies et al., 2006-
Showed participants flashed of food words and then either food words or non words.
Results: Restrained eaters were quicker to say the food words, when previously shown the food words, and non-restrained eaters had no difference in speed regardless of the prime.
199
Fedorodd et al., 1997
Restrained eaters ate more pizza after being exposed to the smell of it
200
STROEBE, et al., 2013
Weight control goal and eating environment goals cannot exist at the same time
Environmental cues decide which one wins at any given time
Happens outside conscious awareness
Cues only affect those with food related goals
Goal priming: environmental cues activate goals, goals affect your cognitions and behaviour.
201
Bruner, 1957
functional size perception hypothesis. If your ‘eating enjoyment’ goal is activated, you perceive palatable foods as larger
202
Van Koningsbruggen, 2011-
Primed participants with a food related or neutral magazine. Participants had to estimate the size of a muffin. Also did a questionnaire to see if they were restrained eaters or not.
Results: restrained eaters estimated the muffin was larger if exposed to the food mag as the prime.
203
Buckland et al., 2014-
67 dieting or non-dieting women. Standardised lunch, then shown weight control cues or neutral, and given snacks.
204
Papies and Hamstra, 2010-
People exposed to chicken smell in shop, either poster for healthy recipe or no poster. Found that if the poster was there, restrained eaters ate less
205
Wyrobeck and Chen, 2002
8 females created sentences with exercise or non exercise words and then got told to go upstairs. In the control condition- 14 people took stairs and 12 elevator. In the exercise words condition- 22 people took the stairs!
206
PAPIES, 2016-
Modify the situation
Individuals (focus on restrained eaters)
Cue- identify cues which work for goal
Timing- do it during health decision making period
Behaviour- make a situation when performing new behaviour is possible
Modify the cognitions
This is where you create the new associations.
Make ne mental links between cues and weight management rather than cues and weight enjoyment goals
207
Grenard et al., 2011-
1.76 more likely to be non-adherent if you’re depressed.
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Muma and Lyons, 2015
Looked into reasons for not adhering.
Treatment related
Complicated treatment regime
Interferes with their lifestyle
Delayed onset of action
Side effects
Patient related
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Low SES
Low literacy, knowledge
Impaired cognition
Denial
Diminished physical capacity.
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Prescriber related
Poor relationship
Lack of resources and time
Doctor has detected that they're not adhering
209
Rich et al., 2015
Meta analysis to see which parts of TPB can predict adherence.
Results: found small-moderate effects of the intention-behaviour gap being able to explain non-adherence.
210
Sirois and Hirsch, 2019
looked into associations between self-compassion and 5 different health conditions, including:
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Fibromyalgia 1 and 2
Chronic fatigue
PTSD
Cancer
Cancer survivors
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Results: every sample has a significant correlation- r=.22!
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Sin et al., 2015-
Procedure: looked at positive affect and health behaviours across 5 years, in people with coronary heart disease. Examined their psychological states and their health protective/risk behaviours as baseline and then 5 years later.
Past research on psychological states and CHD had contradictory findings- some found that those with more positive affect had less incidence of CHD, but others found null results.
Results: more positive affect= more positive health behaviours.
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Przezdziecki et al., 2013
Less body image related stress in breast cancer patients
213
Friis et al., 2015
Actually had better bloody sugar levels in diabetes patients!
