HEALTH, HUMAN RIGHTS AND INTERVENTION Flashcards
Evaluate the view that development aid has been largely ineffective in reducing inequalities in developing countries (20 marks).
Relevant points may include:
AO1
Inequalities can be identified in terms of income, health, education and
political engagement amongst other factors, both within and between
developing countries.
Differential access to basic needs such as food, water supply and sanitation
results in inequality of health (e.g. disease, access to health programmes
and life expectancy).
Ethnic variations and income levels contribute to health variations within a
country.
Development aid includes charitable gifts from NGOs and national
governments and IGOs offering loans.
Opinions vary about the success of aid, with most approving of increased
equality for women and improvements in treatment for illness, but there is
opposition to the dependency and corruption that it can involve.
Aid has helped improve health in some states but there has been failure
elsewhere.
Development aid can be used by superpowers to extend their reach and
influence.
AO2
Aid that is ineffective in reducing inequalities:
Aid is often short term and controlled by the donor with limited choice or
oversight by the recipients. If it is withdrawn the poorest often suffer.
Tied aid and bilateral aid may restrict benefits.
Structural Adjustment Programme rules have forced restrictions on
investment in health and education.
Problems with corruption/embezzlement/diversion of funds to ruling elites.
NGOs have exploited people (Oxfam in Haiti).
Health: treatment is provided freely by aid programmes, but a lack of
access to clean water/balanced diet, and problems of access to follow-up
appointments due to isolation mean that many do not fully benefit.
Access to drug treatment is expensive and the TRIPs agreement does not
necessarily mean the best drugs are available, e.g. for cancer.
Fear of western medicine and unwilling to participate in vaccination
programmes provided by aid programmes.
However positive progress in reducing inequalities:
Aid has been extremely successful in some ways, e.g. almost complete
eradication of polio, small pox and ebola, and significant improvement in
effects of malaria and HIV/AIDS. These reduce life expectancy inequalities.
Projects to help improve Maternal Mortality rates have a ‘double dividend’
by saving the child’s life.
Investment in infrastructure/IT/training helps improve trade and earnings.
Success of MDGs (2000 onwards) and SDG (2015 onwards) have targeted
help to improve access to primary education, reduced poverty, etc.
Humanitarian aid following disasters does help rescue and recovery but
often problems remain (Haiti post-2010 earthquake).
Closing the gender inequality gap has been a focus (globally since the UN
decade for women in 1975) in many parts of the world.
Evaluation depends on the examples/evidence presented.
The poorest developing countries have so many other challenges that aid may be
little more than a ‘sticking plaster’ alongside other pressures, e.g. migration of
Malawi’s nurses to South Africa, and South Africa’s nurses to Australia or Canada
means that any improvements from aid are small.
Project aid is widely criticised as piecemeal and poorly monitored, resulting in
duplication and short-term targets and limited progress in reducing inequalities..
Inequalities could be assessed within and between countries. For the better off
people in capital cities in many African countries, quality of health provision can be
as good as elsewhere in the world. But for the poor, and in rural areas options are
far fewer.
Explain why governments vary in their definition and protection of human rights (8 marks).
Relevant points may include:
Likely HR for discussion include: freedom of speech, right to education,
equality for women.
The UDHR is not legally binding so countries can adapt their interpretation of
it according to their needs/agendas.
Some emerging powers have transitioned to more democratic governments,
supporting human right to freedom of speech, for example in election
campaigns in India and Brazil.
Levels of development may hold back countries from implementing desirable
human rights like primary education for all.
Rights for women are limited in Saudi Arabia due to interpretations of Islam
by religious and state leadership.
More authoritarian governments like China and North Korea do not allow any
discussion of politics, restricting freedom of speech.
In the 1950s, 60s and 70s, South Korea and Singapore pushed through
economic reform and did not allow people to speak out for fear of
encouraging communism.
Freedom of speech (first amendment in USA and article 19 in UDHR) may be
used as an excuse for expression of racist views and is likely to lead to
opposition so governments seek to restrict right to speak.
In the past, radical imams in UK have encouraged militant Islamism and
have lost their right to preach, and some are now in prison, because
government is fearful of others joining their cause or ISIS in Syria/Iraq, or of
bombings/ violence in UK.
There is a tension between the right to say what you think and the duties
and responsibilities to prevent incitement to hate, for example.
Explain why some International Governmental Organisations (IGOs) have promoted neo‑liberal market and trade policies for economic development (8 marks)
Relevant points may include:
* International organisations such as the World Bank, IMF and WTO promote neo-
liberal attitudes to trade through adoption of free trade, privatisation and
deregulation of financial markets.
* Trade blocs such as the EU have encouraged free trade amongst member states,
whilst maintaining tariffs and subsides on external products and services.
* Neoliberal policies include: privatisation of state-run services such as railway/post
office/water, removal of government restrictions (‘red-tape’), deregulation to allow
movement of capital and goods, free trade, devaluation of currency, and for TNCs to
operate freely, and investment by companies from overseas (e.g. EDF building
Hinkley Point).
* These encourage global trade as businesses can set up more freely and move money
and goods with reduced taxes and tariffs.
* In theory, economic progress, infrastructure improvements and profit will allow
trickle down benefits for people and tax revenues for governments.
* Many developing countries have debts to WB or IMF they cannot afford to repay,
however, especially if they rely on commodity prices which may fall.
* Governments have different approaches. Many value progress in social
development (e.g. education and health), supported by the UN MDG/SDG approach
(e.g. Vietnam, Peru), which the WB claims to support.
* More recently Highly Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) schemes to reduce debt
payments, and WB loans have focused on schemes to improve environmental
protection, health, education and human rights, as well as encouraging economic
development.
* TNCs also support neo-liberal policies as they allow business to take place with little
government interference.
Explain how the Geneva Convention attempts to protect human rights (4 marks)
For example:
* Geneva Convention of 1949 (and earlier versions) set out modern
humanitarian law, stating how soldiers and civilians should be treated in
wartime. (1) It has been ratified by 196 countries, making it one of the
most widely supported agreements (1). It includes basic rights for
prisoners in wartime (1) and says all wounded people should be cared
for, whether from the enemy or not (1).
* Most current armed conflicts are internal, where torture and hostage
taking may occur, which are banned by the Geneva Convention (1). An
international court judges those charged with offences (1). Peacekeeping
forces are used to enforce the Convention (1) and this was successful in
Liberia where UN peacekeepers left after 15 years and after peaceful
elections of President Wah in 2018.(1)
Evaluate the extent to which military interventions are effective in reducing human rights abuses (20 marks)
Relevant points may include:
AO1
* Military action is one geopolitical intervention to address human rights abuses.
* Indirect and direct military action usually have geopolitical aims and may claim to
improve opportunities for development, but there are often costs (loss of
sovereignty and human rights).
* Other actions include suspension of aid or trade agreements.
AO2
* The effectiveness of military interventions depends upon the baseline used to
measure success against.
* States which experience interventions often resent them as their national
sovereignty is compromised.
* Interventions may be seen as neo-colonial meddling and interfering and thus
unwelcome.
* Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was agreed (2005) by all UN member states to
prevent genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity within
their borders. The international community has the responsibility to intervene if a
state fails to protect its own people.
* Military action can often be prolonged (e.g. Syria) with devastating consequences
for wellbeing and economic or social survival
* On the other hand, lack of military action has allowed genocide to continue
unchallenged (e.g. Bosnia, Rwanda), allowing war crimes to occur.
* Short term impacts may provide some support for at risk/marginalised people but
the long term impacts are rarely evident due to poor government planning and
capacity.
Evaluation is likely to weigh the examples chosen and recognise that there is no single
approach that can be applied in all circumstances.
Evaluate the view that Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) have been largely unsuccessful in improving human development (20 marks)
AO1
* The post-war period since 1945 saw the emergence of intergovernmental organisations
(IGOs) focused on improving the global economic system and tackling environmental
issues.
* Three key IGOs were established and have influenced world trade and thus the economic
development of countries; the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the
World Trade Organisation (WTO)
* Human development includes a range of dimensions ranging from a long and healthy life,
education, income levels, inequalities, poverty and human security.
AO2
* The establishment of the IMF, World Bank and WTO at the end of WW2 have been
important throughout the 21st Century in maintaining the dominance of ‘Western’
capitalism through a combination of global economic management and free-trade policies.
Arguably it has allowed the USA to gain a disproportionate influence over the principles
that underpin the global economic system.
* The World Bank has focused on achieving the universal primary education and promoting
gender equality through its Global Partnership for Education (GPE). The GPE has invested
over $35 million in early childhood education for all children, and aims to develop a sound
educational system for children through developing early reading and numeracy skills.
* The IMF established a Poverty reduction programmes with countries required to develop
medium-term development plans in order to receive aid, loans and debt relief.
* The IMF and WTO lending and rulings have helped many countries to develop economically
e.g. Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey have benefitted from large loans in the past.
Level Level 1 Level 2 PMT
However, since 1970s the rules and conditions attached to this lending has become
rougher with the introduction of structural adjustment programmes and the Heavily
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiate.
* The WTO relative failure to deliver on its promise of free trade has led the world to create
regional groupings in the form of trading blocs. The growth of these, predominately driven
by the concept of comparative advantage and economies of scale have been the guiding
principles for the 21st Century.
* The creation of the Millennium Development Goals (2000-2015) and subsequent
Sustainable Development Goals (2015-2030) enabled governments to work towards
combatting global development issues such as extreme hunger and poverty, achieving
universal primary education and promoting gender equality.
* The success of these goals is variable, but notable improvements in child mortality halving
between 1990 and 2015, supported by the increased spread of measles vaccinations.
* On the other hand, whilst the MDGs tried to maintain a focus on ensuring environmental
sustainability, forest and marine resources continue to be exploited causing environmental
degradation.
Evaluation is likely to suggest that governments and IGOs have had some significant success
in improving global human development, but the success has tended to focus on economic or
social components rather than the full breadth of ‘development’.
Explain why a range of variables is needed to measure the success of development aid (8 marks)
Relevant points may include:
* Development aid includes money, technical aid or physical supplies provided by one
country to another, often involving IGOs such as the UN and/or NGOs. It can be given
in the form of bilateral aid or multilateral aid.
* Development aid aims to improve quality of aid by meeting basic needs (food, clean
water, education and healthcare.
* Sources of aid include World Bank, International Monetary Fund, the International
Monetary Fund, national governments, charitable gifts are hazards and Non-
governmental Organisations.
* The success of development aid can be measured through a range of indicators such
as improvements in life expectancy, provision of healthcare and literacy rates.
* The success of development aid depends upon the conditions attached i.e. improving
human rights, education of women/girls and/or strengthening the rights of minority
groups.
* Success of development aid can be can be difficult to judge as it can take years for the
impact of the intervention to be felt in current conflict situations e.g. improving
education, healthcare, government and economic systems.
* Western governments often see the promotion of democracy and freedom of expression
as a successful outcome of interventions. However, western countries have been
criticised for forcing their own economic and political model on developing and
emerging countries.
* The judgement of improving economic wealth and incomes is often seen as more
important that improving all aspects of quality of life.
* Measuring the success of development aid is increasingly important due to the volume
of money that is involved.
* Countries/IGOs need to ensure that there is money is well spent especially given the
economic challenges facing some developed countries and the push back on agreeing to the UN target of 0.7% of a countries GDP to aid.
