Health, human rights and intervention

Question 1

What is human development?

Answer 1

Human development looks at the standards of living within a country, by looking at factors such as GDP, life expectancy, Literacy rates, infant mortality and healthcare.

Question 2

What is the development gap?

Answer 2

The social and economic disparity between the wealthy and the poor

Question 3

How do we measure development?

Answer 3

• Economic development — An increase in the number of people working in Primary, Secondary and Tertiary employment sectors — leading to rising incomes
• Social development — Rising life expectancy, better
  healthcare and access to education, improved equality for women and minorities — leading to improved quality of life.
• Political freedom — right to vote, free press and freedom of speech — leading to greater control over who governs you.

Question 4

Why is it difficult to measure development?

Answer 4

Can be difficult because it requires data, which can only be based on recorded information (e.g. The formal economy).
This ignores informal, subsistence or unpaid work. In developing countries where births and deaths are not registered in all areas it is also harder to get accurate social measures.

Question 5

What is GDP?

Answer 5

GDP — Gross Domestic Product
The value of goods and services produced by a country over a year.
* Calculated by combining the value of all goods produced with the value of services such as banking and tourism.
* This is then divided by the total population to give a per capita (per person)
* It is converted to US$ to allow comparison.

Question 6

What is GNI?

Answer 6

GNI —Gross national income
Like GDP but also includes income from overseas investments such as shares.
This tends to favour wealthier countries who earn more in this way.

Question 7

Strengths of GDP pc?

Answer 7

• Most widely used indicator
• Easily measured
• Means you can compare between countries
• Effectively highlights increasing development gap
• Can give an idea of development potential

Question 8

Limitations of GDP pc?

Answer 8

• US$ doesn’t account for cost of living
• No guarantee that money will be spent on development
• Not everything of value can be measured
• Some argue development should be measured along a continuum, not in groups
• The real value of currency changes over periods of time
• No indication of how national income is actually distributed

Question 9

What is HDI?

Answer 9

A composite index introduced by the UNDP, which uses three indicators - GDPPC, life expectancy and literacy - to measure development, ranging from 0 (least developed) to 1 (most developed)

Question 10

Strengths of HDI?

Answer 10

• Allows anomalies to be spotted
• Brings human welfare back to the centre
• Can distinguish between good and bad growth
• Most effective when ranking
  is broken down to the individual indicators
• Gives economically poor countries recognition for their improvements in well-being,
  e.g. Costa Rica

Question 11

Limitations of HDI?

Answer 11

• Still just an average
• Human rights are not included
• Some say it doesn’t show you anything different from GDP
• Hides variation within countries

Question 12

What is the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI)?

Answer 12

The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) was created in 1970 to measure quality of life, or well-being. The index uses three indicators - literacy rate, infant mortality and life expectancy.

Question 13

Strengths of PQLI?

Answer 13

• Gives recognition to the importance of social development, rather than economic

Question 14

Limitations of PQLI?

Answer 14

• Considerable overlap between infant mortality and life expectancy.
• Gives no recognition to the role of income.
• Usually overshadowed by the HDI.
• How useful is life expectancy at showing quality of life?

Question 15

What is the Gender related development index (GDI)?

Answer 15

The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) is considered the ‘gender-sensitive’ extension of the HDI. It was introduced in 1995 and is used within the UNDP’s annual Human Development Reports. It uses the same indicators as the HDI, and creates a ‘development score penalty’ to highlight gender gaps in well-being.

Question 16

Strengths of GDI?

Answer 16

• Acknowledges the issue of inequality.
• Can effectively compare a country’s HDI score to its GDI.
  Gives importance to gender in development.

Question 17

Limitations of GDI?

Answer 17

• Cannot be used independently from the HDI.
• Data is not always readily available.
• Problematic assumptions on life expectancy.
• Only looks at gender inequality.

Question 18

What is the Happy Planet Index

Answer 18

The HPI focuses on human well-being and environmental impact and uses three indicators - life expectancy, experienced well-being, ecological footprint. The idea behind the HPI is that the ultimate aim of most people is not to be rich, but to be happy and healthy; therefore GDP is
inappropriate.

Question 19

Strengths of HPI?

Answer 19

• Offers a different perspective from other mainstream measures of development
• Easy to understand
• Considers people’s opinions about their own well-being
• Includes environmental aspects
  Ecological footprint is widely used by local and national governments, as well as other organisations such as the European Commission.

Question 20

Limitations of HPI?

Answer 20

• Is not used widely and some organisations don’t take it seriously.
• Ignores issues such as political freedom and human rights.
• Does not cover all nations and is only carried out every 5 years.
• ‘Experienced well-being’ is subjective.
• ‘Ecological footprint’ is often widely criticised as a measure.
• Who answers the survey?

Question 20

What are the reasons for variation in development progress?

Answer 20

• Climate - restricts agriculture and ability to generate income
  
  • Relief - steep slopes are difficult to farm on
  • Natural hazards - tend to use income to mitigate hazards of events
  • Landlocking - increased cost of trade as no ports
  • Natural resources - areas lacking resources are less developed
  • Population - high population growth requires resources to be spread more thinly
  • Politics - poor government systems leading to misuse of funds
  • Economics - agriculture domination leads to low level of income
  • International action - specialised bodies formed and international strategies

Question 20

What is a determinant?

Answer 20

Anything that affects an individual’s health is known as a determinant, as it plays a large part in their life expectancy. All determinants work together.
Determinants include:
- Lifestyle – diet, smoking, alcohol
- General – Job type, money availability, housing quality.
- Country preparation – Vaccinations to prevent disease etc

Question 21

What is social governance?

Answer 21

the action or manner of governing a state with a focus on education, healthcare, welfare, pensions etc

Question 22

What is a democracy?

Answer 22

A democratic country, government, or political system is governed by representatives who are elected by the people examples UK, France, USA

Question 23

What is a totalitarian government?

Answer 23

a government that seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, values and beliefs of its population example North Korea

Question 24

What is a dictatorship?

Answer 24

a form of government in which a ruler or small clique wield absolute power (not restricted by a constitution or laws) example Saudi Arabia

Question 25

What is communism?

Answer 25

a system of government in which the state plans and controls the economy and a single - often authoritarian - party holds power; state controls are imposed with the elimination of private ownership of property or capital while claiming to make progress toward a higher social order in which all goods are equally shared by the people (i.e., a classless society) example Cuba

Question 26

What is neo-liberalism?

Answer 26

is contemporarily used to refer to market-oriented reform policies such as eliminating price controls, deregulating capital markets, lowering trade barriers and reducing, especially through privatization and austerity, state influence in the economy

Question 27

What is free trade?

Answer 27

the exchange of goods and services free of import/export taxes and tariffs or quotas on trade volume

Question 28

What is privatisation?

Answer 28

the transfer of a business, industry, or service from public to private ownership and control

Question 29

What is deregulation?

Answer 29

the reduction or elimination of government power in a particular industry

Question 30

What is the role of IGOs in development?

Answer 30

The dominant IGOs (World Bank, IMF, WTO) have traditionally promoted neo-liberal views of development based on the adoption of free trade, privatisation and deregulation of financial markets but also, recent programmes have been aimed at improving environmental quality, health, education and human rights.

Question 31

What has the IMF done?

Answer 31

An organisation based in Washington that loans money to poorer developing nations, tries to strengthen currencies and promote economic development. One of the key conditions for recipient nations is that the country opens up its markets and industries from government control, which in turn leads to privatisation. TNCs now have the opportunity to enter those markets more easily which would generate financial activity and tax, but mainly for their host country.
It can be seen as more of a hindrance than help; LEDCs fall into debt with their industries privatised, which in turn could lead to profits leaving their country and potential environmental or workforce exploitation. Countries which struggle to pay their debt will have to cut back on funding in key areas such as education and healthcare (structural adjustment), which further damages the country’s economy and welfare.
Recent focus: Poverty reduction programme The IMF has changed tact significantly, with a recent focus on poverty reduction programmes, whereby nations take control of medium-term development programmes rather than have SAPs imposed upon them. This helps countries to create their own development plans and continue to get aid, loans and debt relief

Question 32

What has the World Bank done?

Answer 32

Similar to the IMF, it loans money to developing nations with the aim of improving development, and so enabling globalisation. It is also seen as controversial and many critics say both these organisations don’t benefit developing countries. Instead, they encourage LEDCs to increase their debts and limit the government’s sovereignty.
Recent focus Global Partnership for Education invested US$35 billion in education invests in early childhood education, focusing on literacy and numeracy. This is aimed at the poorest and most disadvantaged groups.
The Climate Change Action Plan– invests in renewable energy programmes, flood warning systems, hazard mitigation strategies and agricultural systems.

Question 33

What has the WTO done?

Answer 33

Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland it aims to liberalise trade by removing tariffs, subsidies and quotas. The WTO has been criticised because it has failed to prevent the EU and USA from implementing protectionist measures like subsidies and so has been unsuccessful in creating equal opportunities for all countries to trade.
Recent focus The WTO now places greater importance on environmentally-sound trade policies. It recognised that encouraging trade between places has had an adverse effect on the environment. Instead, it now encourages trade that restricts the movement of products and species that are harmful or protected, as well as challenges trade agreements that could have adverse environmental/climatic effects.

Question 34

Judging success of IGOS - IMF

Answer 34

The changes to the IMF’s operating practices might be viewed with an air of criticism. The example of Haiti illustrates the challenges that countries might face when trying to increase development. Although SAPs were often criticised, the element of ‘top down’ governance was sometimes required in some countries. Again, it is perhaps early to see the true impact on places worldwide.

Question 35

Judging success of IGOS - World Bank

Answer 35

The World Bank’s investment in the GPE seems to have had a positive impact on countries through investments in education. Some might see it as being ‘too early to tell’ whether the Climate Change Action Plan is effective, however, recognition of the pressing issue of climate change in the global political forum might be considered a positive step towards helping people to mitigate and adapt to changing climatic pressures.

Question 36

Judging success of IGOS - WTO

Answer 36

The principles that the WTO is trying to achieve are merit-worthy, however, due to the capitalist nature of trade and the fact that some countries view the biosphere as a mechanism to increase wealth, there are significant conflicts with the two ideologies – the argument of ‘is it better to increase wealth by exploiting the environment, then sort it out later’, versus, ‘maintaining the environment to allow for long-term sustainable development’.

Question 37

What are the Millennium development goals?

Answer 37

To combat poverty, hunger, disease, illiteracy, environmental degradation, discrimination against women, and improve maternal health

Question 38

What is the UDHR

Answer 38

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a statement of intent and a framework for foreign policy statements to explain economic or military intervention, but not all states have signed the Declaration.
Human rights include liberty, freedom of movement, freedom of speech, personal security and access to education and justice. They are now recognised as important aspects of human development . This is reflected in the fact that they have become the focus of both international law and international agreements.

Question 39

What are examples of universal rights in the UDHR?

Answer 39

Right to education, right to liberty, right to freedom of thought

Question 40

Why have some states not signed the UDHR?

Answer 40

Because in some places they have issues with some of the human rights outlined eg Saudi Arabia did not because women’s rights are a controversial issue, and the Soviet Union considered that the declaration did not condemn Fascism and Nazism sufficiently. Mainly totalitarian states denied human rights. Governing elites fear being overthrown. If they did sign up, they would be heavily censored by the global community for their overt abuses of human rights.

Question 41

What is aid?

Answer 41

Aid is assistance given from one country to another. It includes money, equipment, training and loans. It can be foreign aid from the government of one country to another - or from non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to a country or region.

Question 42

What is bilateral aid?

Answer 42

Aid between two countries - donor country to receiving country

Question 43

What is multilateral aid?

Answer 43

aid between countries through an intermediary IGO

Question 44

What are humanitarian motives for geopolitical intervention?

Answer 44

Offering development aid
Protecting Human Rights
Encouraging education and healthcare

Question 45

What are mutually beneficial motives for geopolitical intervention?

Answer 45

Strengthening security
Promoting international trade
Accessing resources
Encouraging inward investment

Question 46

What are self seeking motives for geopolitical intervention?

Answer 46

Providing military support
Increasing global/regional influence

Question 47

What is tied/conditional aid?

Answer 47

A country gives aid as long as it can expect a benefit in return

Question 48

What is appropriate aid?

Answer 48

Where aid benefits local people, making use of their knowledge and skills

Question 49

What is short term emergency aid?

Answer 49

Aid given to help immediately after a disaster

Question 50

What is long term development aid?

Answer 50

Aid given to help a country develop over a period of time

Question 51

What are the benefits of aid?

Answer 51

• Helps countries respond to emergencies
  
  • Helps countries improve education and health
  • Helps implement technological development and agricultural programmes

Question 52

What are the drawbacks of aid?

Answer 52

• Aid ceases to be effective when it reaches about 16% of GDP (diminishing returns)
  
  • Large, unrestricted inflows of money are not always well spent in the bottom billion countries due to corruption
  • Aim money is also being used to finance military spending rather than development - for example it is estimated that 40% of Africa’s military spending is inadvertently financed by aid
  • Countries may become dependent on aid
    Countries may become heavily indebted to other countries

Question 53

What is military aid?

Answer 53

It consists of money, weapons, equipment or expertise given to developing countries to help them protect their borders fight terrorism and combat piracy or drug and people trafficking. It is also sometimes given to opposition groups fighting for democracy against an authoritarian government such as the USA and UK giving aid to some Syrian rebel groups fighting against President Assad.

Question 54

What are the arguments why military aid may be given to countries with poor human rights records?

Answer 54

• They can use it to pressure recipient nations to improve human rights
  
  • Helps maintain peace, tackle illegal armed groups, and fight criminal organisations involved in illegal people or drug trafficking (USA and Columbia)
  • Could escalate without aid

Question 55

Have military interventions been successful?

Answer 55

There have been few successes . Some argue that the positive effects of mitigating potential genocide and mass killing do not outweigh the long term negative effects of destabilising the Middle East and North Africa. This is perhaps due to the fact that military interventions have not been long enough to achieve reconciliation between warring groups and reconstruction of countries that have been damaged both politically and physically.