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Health Diseasse And Rhe Development Of Medicines Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the world health organisation responsible for!?

A

The World Heath Organisation (WHO) is responsible for advising on ways to improve heath around the world

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2
Q

How do the world health organisation define health!?

A

They define health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being

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3
Q

What does the WHO’s definition of health mean!?

A

This means that being free from disease alone is not necessarily enough to be in good health.

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4
Q

What are the 2 types of disease!?

A

Communicable
Non-communicable

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5
Q

What is a communicable disease!?

A

It can be transferred from one person to another, or from one
organism to another

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6
Q

Gibe an example of a communicable disease….

A

eg in humans, these include measles, food poisoning and
malaria

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7
Q

What is malaria!?

A

A potentially fatal disease spread by mosquitoes

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8
Q

What is a non-communicable disease!?

A

They are not transferred between people or other organisms

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9
Q

What does it mean when different types of disease interact!?

A

This can mean that the presence of one disease can lead to a higher chance of developing another disease.

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10
Q

What is the immune system!?

A

The body’s defence system against entry of any foreign body, including pathogens and agents such as pollen grains. The role of the immune system is to prevent disease.

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11
Q

What does the defects in the immune system mean!?

A

It means that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases

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12
Q

What is HIV!?

A

Human Immunodeficiency Virus, a disease which damages cells in the immune system.

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13
Q

What does HIV lead too!?

A

It leads to AIDS, affect the immune system and lead to an increase in susceptibility to infectious diseases.

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14
Q

What does HIV stand for!?

A

human immunodeficiency virus infections

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15
Q

What can viruses in living cells be a trigger for!?

A

It can be a trigger for cancers

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16
Q

What are the types of cancers that usually form as a result of a virus in living cells!?

A

majority of cases of cancer of the
cervix
are linked with a virus present in the female
reproductive system
.

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17
Q

What is the cervix!?

A

Ring of muscle at the lower end of the uterus

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18
Q

What is the reproductive system!?

A

The organs and tissues involved in producing offspring.

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19
Q

What can trigger allergic reactions!?

A

The reaction of the immune system to
pathogens
and other foreign bodies

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20
Q

What is a pathogen!?

A

A Microorganism that causes disease

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21
Q

What can this allergic reaction due to foreign bodies result in!?

A

Skin rashes and asthma

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22
Q

What is asthma!?

A

A disease that affects the respiratory system.

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23
Q

What can a severe respiratory infection in a baby result in!?

A

It can lead to asthma in later childhood

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24
Q

What can severe physical ill lead to!?

A

Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other types of mental illness.

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25
Q

What are 4 types of pathogen!?

A

Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
Protists

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26
Q

Give an example of a virus in an animal!?

A

HIV/AIDS

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27
Q

Give an example of a virus in plants….

A

Tobacco mosaic virus

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28
Q

Give an example of a bacteria in plants….

A

Agrobacterium

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29
Q

Give an example of a bacteria in animals….

A

Salmonella

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30
Q

Give an example of a fungi in plants….

A

Black rose spot

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31
Q

Give an example of a fungi in animals….

A

Athlete’s foot

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32
Q

Give an example of a protist in plants….

A

Downy mildew

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33
Q

Give an example of a protist in an animal….

A

Malaria

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34
Q

What is the first stage of the life cycle of a pathogen!?

A
  1. They infect the host
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35
Q

What is the second stage of the life cycle of a pathogen!?

A

They reproduce themselves
or replicate if it is a virus

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36
Q

What is the third stage of the life cycle of a pathogen!?

A

They spread from their host and infect other organisms

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37
Q

What do pathogens also have in terms of structure!?

A

They also all have structural adaptations that make them successful at completing their life cycles, which enable them to cause more disease.

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38
Q

Are diseases caused by pathogens communicable or non-communicable!? And what does this mean!?

A

They are communicable diseases. This means the disease can be transferred from an infected organism to another organism.

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39
Q

List the 3 types of non-communicable diseases…..

A

1.inherited genetic disorders
2.deficiency diseases
3.diseases like cancer that can develop as a result of exposure to carcinogens or delvelop natural,g as cell division occurs incorrectly

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40
Q

Name an example of an inherited genetic disorder…..

A

cystic fibrosis
can be passed to offspring but not to anyone else.

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41
Q

List an example of a deficiency disease….

A

as scurvy which occurs when an individual has insufficient vitamin C.

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42
Q

What is transmission!?

A

The spreading of pathogenic disease, for example by touch, food, water.

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43
Q

What are the 5 important ways that transmission can occur…

A

1.direct contact
2.water
3.air
4.unhygienic food preparation
5.vector

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44
Q

Give an example of how a pathogenic disease can be transmitted by direct contact….

A

This can be sexual contact during intercourse or non-sexual contact, like shaking hands.

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45
Q

Give an example of how a pathogenic disease can be transmitted by water….

A

Dirty water can transmit many diseases, such as the cholera bacterium.

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46
Q

Give an example of how a pathogenic disease can be transmitted by air….

A

When a person who is infected by the common cold sneezes, they can spray thousands of tiny droplets containing virus particles to infect others.

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47
Q

Give an example of how a pathogenic disease can be transmitted by unhygienic food preparation….

A

Undercooked or reheated food can cause bacterial diseases like Escherichia coli which is a cause of food poisoning.

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48
Q

Give an example of how a pathogenic disease can be transmitted by a vector….

A

Any organism that can spread a disease is called a vector. Many farmers think tuberculosis in their cattle can be spread by badgers.

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49
Q

Why are viruses not alive!?

A

Viruses
are not alive because they do not complete all of the seven life processes

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50
Q

What is a virus!?

A

An ultramicroscopic infectious non-cellular organism that can replicate inside the cells of living hosts, with negative consequences.

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51
Q

What are the 7 life process that a a virus does not complete all of!?

A

1.movement
2.respiration
3.sensitivity
5.nutrition
6.excretion
7.reproduction
8.Growth

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52
Q

Why do we say for a virus instead of species!?

A

A strain

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53
Q

What are strains made from!?

A

Strains are made of a relatively short length of genetic material (
DNA
) which is surrounded by a
protein coat
.

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54
Q

What is a protein coat!?

A

The proteins that surround the DNA of a virus.

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55
Q

What cannot treat a virus!?

A

Antibiotics

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56
Q

What are antibiotics!?

A

Substances that control the spread of bacteria in the body by killing them or stopping them reproducing.

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57
Q

How is HIV transmitted!?

A

This infection is transmitted by body fluids, often during unprotected sex, but also through cuts and injecting drugs using unsterilized needles.

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58
Q

What do people suffer with after immediately being infected with HIV!?

A

Immediately after infection, people often suffer mild flu-like symptoms. These pass and for a period of time infected people might not know they are infected.

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59
Q

What does aids stand for!?

A

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

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60
Q

What happens after months or years after being infected with HIV!?

A

virus becomes active and attacks the patient’s white blood cells. HIV at this point has resulted in AIDS.

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61
Q

What is the cure for HIV/AIDS!?

A

There is no cure for HIV/AIDS although scientists are trying to find one

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62
Q

What are people infected with HIV/AIDS currently treated with!?

A

Currently, infected people are given
antiviral drugs
, which can significantly slow the development of AIDS.

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63
Q

What is an antiviral drug!?

A

antivirals
Drugs that prevent viruses replicating.

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64
Q

What disease in 2015 occurred and in which country did it occur in!?

A

Ebola and it occurred in West Africa

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65
Q

Between what percentages were Ebola cases fatal!?

A

Between 50%-90%

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66
Q

What are the 3 early symptoms of Ebola!?

A

1.fever and headache
2.joint and muscle pain
3.muscle weakness

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67
Q

What do patients then suffer with after the early symptoms of Ebola!?

A

Patients then develop diarrhoea, vomiting, stomach pain and internal bleeding.

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68
Q

How is Ebola transmitted!?

A

The virus is transmitted in body fluids

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69
Q

What type of disease is Ebola!?

A

It’s a virus

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70
Q

How do you unfortunately catch Ebola!?

A

It is possible to catch it from
1.a dead person several days after they have died.
2.from the clothes or possessions of a dead person
3.having sex with an infected person 4.from unsterilized needles shared with an infected person.

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71
Q

What is the cure for Ebola!?

A

There is currently no licensed treatment for Ebola.

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72
Q

Not all bacteria that causes a disease is what!?

A

A pathogen

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73
Q

Where are many useful bacteria’s found!?

A

Eg bacteria found in the intestines

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74
Q

What are all bacteria!?

A

Prokaryotes and do not have a nucleus

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75
Q

Describe bacteria cells…..

A

Unlike
viruses
, bacteria are cells and so are larger but cannot be seen without a microscope.

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76
Q

What is cholera!?

A

a bacterial infection often transmitted in dirty water or contaminated food

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77
Q

What are the symptoms of people infected by cholera!?

A

1.diarrhoea
2.feeling and being sick (vomiting)
3.stomach cramps

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78
Q

What does having diarrhoea and vomiting mean after unfortunately being infected by cholera!?

A

Having diarrhoea and vomiting mean infected people quickly become dehydrated and can go into shock.

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79
Q

When do large outbreaks of cholera occur!?

A

Large outbreaks of cholera are often found shortly after natural disasters or during armed conflict

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80
Q

How many people sadly die from cholera each year!?

A

Unfortunately thousands of people currently die each year of cholera.

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81
Q

What prevent people from cholera infection!?

A

A vaccine

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82
Q

How are people treated after unfortunately being infected by cholera!?

A

infected, treatment involves taking oral rehydration solutions to prevent dehydration and shock

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83
Q

Why to cholera solutions contain salt and glucose!?

A

The solutions have salts and glucose in them to help replace those lost in diarrhoea and vomiting. Antibiotics are also used.

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84
Q

What is tuberculosis (TB)!?

A

Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection spread in tiny droplets when a person coughs or sneezes

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85
Q

What type of disease is TB!?

A

An airborne disease

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86
Q

What area of the body does TB mainly infect!?

A

The lungs- where is unfortunately causes damage to them

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87
Q

What are the symptoms of tuberculosis!?

A

1.a bad cough often resulting in coughing up blood
2.loss of appetite leading to weight loss
3.high temperature
R.tiredness and fatigue

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88
Q

What is TB caused by!?

A

Tuberculosis is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

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89
Q

What do many people have that can kill of any bacterial disease!?

A

A strong immune system

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90
Q

What factor makes someone at at higher risk of unfortunately catching TB!?

A

If patients have other diseases or a weakened immune system they are more likely to catch TB.

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91
Q

What is the name of the vaccine that prevents TB!?

A

The BCG vaccine

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92
Q

How is TB treated!?

A

If infected, antibiotics are prescribed.

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93
Q

What is an immune system!?

A

The body’s defence system against entry of any foreign body, including pathogens and agents such as pollen grains. The role of the immune system is to prevent disease.

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94
Q

Which bacteria unfortunately causes stomach ulcers!?

A

Helicobacter pylori

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95
Q

What are stomach ulcers!?

A

Open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach and are usually caused by bacteria.

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96
Q

Do people show symptoms when they are infected by Stomach ulcers caused by Helicobacter!?

A

Many people do not show symptoms

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97
Q

Are Stomach ulcers caused by Helicobacter common!?

A

It is a common infection

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98
Q

Helicobacter pylori can simply live in the stomach and not cause any…..

A

Ulcers

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99
Q

How is Helicobacter pylori transmitted!?

A

Transmission from an infected person is through saliva.

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100
Q

What happens to some people when infected by Helicobacter pylori!?

A

The infection starts to irritate the lining of the stomach which then stops protecting them from the hydrochloric acid in their stomach

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101
Q

What does the irritation caused by Helicobacter pylori result in!?

A

Stomach ulcers

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102
Q

How do we know if people are more likely to be infected by stomach ulcers than others!?

A

We don’t yet know why some people are more likely to develop ulcers.

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103
Q

What lifestyle factors can increase the risk of stomach ulcers!?

A

1.Spicy food
2.stress
3.excessive alcohol
4.smoking

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104
Q

What are the symptoms of stomach ulcers!?

A

1.indigestion
2.heartburn
3.loss of appetite and weight loss

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105
Q

How are stomach ulcers treated!?

A

Antibiotics can be used to treat stomach ulcers shown to be caused by Heliobacter pylori.

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106
Q

What is a contaminant!?

A

Is any substance or object that makes a food harmful or objectionable

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107
Q

What pathogens can cause food poising!?

A

Bacteria

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108
Q

List the bacterial infections cause food bourne illnesses …

A

1.salmonella
2.bacillus cereus
3.clostridium perfringens
4.Escherichia coli ( E. coli)
5.campylobacter jejuni

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109
Q

What can some food bourne illness do!?

A

Sadly, some can kill

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110
Q

What are the certain conditions that bacteria need to thrive and multiply !?

A

1.food
2.moisture
3.warmth
4.time

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111
Q

What types of food allow bacteria to thrive and multiply !?

A

Foods that are moist and high in protein like meat,fish and eggs and dairy products

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112
Q

In what conditions are bacteria unable to multiply in!?

A

In dry foods but once moisture is added it creates the perfect conditions for bacteria

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113
Q

In what type of temperatures allow bacteria to thrive and multiply !?

A

Most bacteria multiply between 5-63 degrees c

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114
Q

Why are frozen foods kept below -18 degrees c!?

A

It only slows bacteria growth. IT DOES NOT KILL BACTERIA!!!!!

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115
Q

What temperature are frozen foods kept frozen at!?

A

Bellow -18 degrees c

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116
Q

How can time allow bacteria to thrive and multiply !?

A

They multiply quickly

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117
Q

What must you do do food to reduce the amount of time so bacteria multiplies at a slower rate!?

A

Chill and store food bellow 5 degrees c and within 90mins of cooking

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118
Q

What happens when there is a single bacterium on food in a warm kitchen!?

A

It can multiply and create over 500 million bacteria by the time you eat it just a few hours later

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119
Q

What are the 4 Cs to prevent food poisoning!?

A

1.cleaning
2.cooking
3.chilling
4.cross contamination

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120
Q

List the ways you must clean to prevent food poisoning!?

A

1.By regularly and thoroughly cleaning your hands before preparing food
2.wash them each time after handling raw meats,after using the toilet,after changing a nappy,after touching bins or Pets,and clean surfaces with hot soapy water.

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121
Q

What can you do when cooking to prevent food poisoning!?

A

Destroy harmful bacteria by thorough cooking
And reheat at at least 75 degrees c and then maintain at least at 63 degrees c until served

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122
Q

What can you do when chilling foods to prevent food poisoning!?

A
  1. Set your fridge to bellow 5 degrees c
  2. Cool hot foods fast but Never cool hot foods in the fridge because it increase the interior temperature about 5 degrees c causing bacteria in food to multiply
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123
Q

How does cross contamination result in food poisoning!?

A

Eg: meat juices from a raw steak on the top shelf of the fridge leak onto something being stored on the next shelf down meaning when you eat the foods bellow you are also eating the bacteria for, raw meats

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124
Q

What is cross contamination!?

A

When bacteria from raw food gets transferred to other foods especially if they can be eaten without cooking

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125
Q

What are protists!?

A

A eukaryotic, usually single-celled organism of the kingdom Protista.they are also Protists
are a group of small organisms that have features that belong to animals, plants and
fungi

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126
Q

What are some protists more like!?

A

Some are more like animals, others more like plants and some, called moulds, are closest to fungi

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127
Q

What are all protist diseases!?

A

They are all
eukaryotic
, which means they have a
nucleus
.

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128
Q

How is malaria spread!?

A

Malaria is spread by mosquitos, which carry the Plasmodium protist

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129
Q

Where are mosquitos often found!?

A

These are often found in areas with higher temperatures like Africa, Asia, and South and Central America

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130
Q

Why are mosquitoes not found in the uk!?

A

They are not found here because if our low temperatures

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131
Q

How do mosquitoes infect people with malaria!?

A

Mosquitos suck blood containing the protists from an infected person. They pass the protist, to other people they suck blood from

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132
Q

How do mosquitoes not become I’ll form malaria themselves!?

A

The mosquitos do not become ill and are called ‘
vectors
‘ because they transmit the
disease
.

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133
Q

What is a vector!?

A

Any organism that can spread a disease

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134
Q

What are the symptoms of malaria!?

A

The symptoms of malaria include a fever, sweats and chills, headaches, vomiting and
diarrhoea

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135
Q

What is also damaged when unfortunately contracting malaria!?

A

The blood and liver

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136
Q

How many people are infected with malaria each year!?

A

200 million people infected each year

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137
Q

How many people sadly die from malaria die each year!?

A

Of the 200 million people infected each year, up to half die from this disease

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138
Q

How do people prevent getting malaria!?

A

There is no vaccination for malaria. Infection can only be prevented by stopping individuals from being bitten

People sleep under
mosquito nets
and wear insect repellent to avoid bites

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139
Q

How are malaria symptoms treated!?

A

Antimalarial drugs
are also taken, which treat the symptoms and can prevent infection.

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140
Q

What is an antimalarial drug!?

A

Medicine that stops or treats a malarial infection

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141
Q

List a fungi that does not cause disease…

A

Yeast
is a single-celled fungus that is economically important because we use it to make things like bread and beer

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142
Q

What is yeast!?

A

A unicellular fungus used in the brewing and baking industries.

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143
Q

Not all fungi are what!?

A

Single-celled

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144
Q

Give an example of a multicellular fungi……

A

mushrooms are multicellular and so much larger. These are still made of tiny cells like yeast, but have many more of them.

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145
Q

Do fungi cells have a nucleus!? And what does this mean!?

A

Yes meaning that they are eukaryotic

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146
Q

What is athlete’s foot!?

A

Athlete’s foot
is a rash caused by a fungus that is usually found between people’s toes

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147
Q

What happens to your skin when you are infected with athlete’s foot!?

A

It causes dry, red and flaky or white, wet and cracked skin

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148
Q

Where are the most likely places to catch athlete’s foot!?

A

It is often found in communal areas like swimming pool changing rooms or gyms

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149
Q

How is athletes’s foot transmitted!?

A

is transmitted by touching infected skin or surfaces that have been previous contaminated.

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150
Q

How can athlete’s foot be treated!?

A

It is treated by
antifungal medication

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151
Q

What species of fungus infects ash trees!?

A

Hymenoscyphus fraxineus

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152
Q

What are the symptoms of chalara ash die back!?

A

1.leaf loss
2.die back of new shoots
3.bark lesions.

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153
Q

When was chalara ash die back first found in the uk!?

A

In 2012, so it is quite new

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154
Q

How does chalara ash die back spread!?

A

The fungus spreads through the air, so we call it an airborne infection

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155
Q

Since 2012, how much of the uk’s woodland has been infected by this disease!?

A

Since 2012 it has spread to about one third of all large woodlands in the UK.

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156
Q

How fast does chalara ash die back spread!?

A

Scientists are not yet sure how quickly this fungus will spread of what its full impact will be on our ash population.

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157
Q

What are scientists trying to identify to do with ash dieback!?

A

They are trying to identify the genetic factors that mean that some ash trees are naturally resistant to the fungus.

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158
Q

What are the 5 main ways of preventing the trainsmission of a disease!?

A

1.sterilising water
2. Suitable hygiene:food
3. Suitable hygiene:personal
4.vaccination
5.contraception

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159
Q

Give an example of a disease that can be prevented by Sterilising water….

A

Cholera

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160
Q

How does sterilising water prevent cholera!?

A

Chemicals or UV light kill pathogens in unclean water.

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161
Q

Give an example of a disease that can be prevented by suitable food hygiene….

A

Salmonella

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162
Q

How does using suitable food hygiene prevent salmonella!?

A

Cooking foods thoroughly and preparing them in hygienic conditions kills pathogens.

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163
Q

Give an example of a disease that can prevented by suitable personal hygiene…..

A

Athlete’s foot

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164
Q

Explain how using suitable personal hygiene prevents athlete’s foot…

A

Washing surfaces with disinfectants kills pathogens. Treating existing cases of infection kills pathogens.

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165
Q

Give an example of a disease that can be prevented by a vaccination…..

A

Tuberculosis

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166
Q

Explain how using a vaccination can prevent the transmission of TB….

A

Immunisations introduce a small or weakened version of a pathogen into your body, and the immune system learns how to defend itself.

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167
Q

Give an example of a disease that can be prevented by the use of contraception…..

A

HIV/AIDS

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168
Q

Explain how the use of contraception can prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS…..

A

By using barrier contraception like condoms, it stops the transfer of bodily fluids and sexually transmitted diseases

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169
Q

How are STIs transmitted!?

A

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are passed from one person to another through sexual contact

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170
Q

What does STI stand for!?

A

Sexually transmitted infection

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171
Q

How many different typed of pathogens are there that causes and STI!?

A

More than 30 different pathogens

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172
Q

List a few examples of an STI….

A

Chlamydia
A virus like HIV

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173
Q

How is the spread of STIs reduced!?

A

reduce the spread of STIs people can abstain from sexual activity or use a barrier-type of
contraception
like a condom.

174
Q

What is contraception!?

A

Any form of birth control used to prevent pregnancy.

175
Q

What is chlamydia!?

A

Chlamydia is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a
bacterium
.

176
Q

What age group does chlamydia usually affect!?

A

is a common infection, especially amongst people under 25

177
Q

What do the NHS advice to under 25 year olds about chlamydia!?

A

The NHS recommends that people who are under 25 and sexually active have a Chlamydia test every year or if they change partner.

178
Q

What are the symptoms of chlamydia!?

A

a burning pain when urinating and often forms a thick yellow or green
discharge
from an infected person’s penis or vagina. In women it can also cause bleeding between periods and men can develop swollen testicles.

179
Q

What will happen if chlamydia is untreated!?

A

If untreated, infection with Chlamydia can result in
infertility
. Like other bacterial infections,

180
Q

What is discharge!?

A

Green or yellow liquid containing pus that arises from an infection.

181
Q

How is chlamydia treated!?

A

Chlamydia is treated by
antibiotics
.

182
Q

What is the first line of defence that stops infections and pathogens from entering the body!?

A

Chemical and physical barriers

183
Q

List all the physical barriers that will prevent infections and pathogen from entering the body….

A

1.The skin
2.nose
3. Mucus and ciliated cells

184
Q

List all the chemical barriers that will prevent infections and pathogen from entering the body….

A

1.Stomach acid
2.lysozymes

185
Q

Explain how your skin acts as a physical barrier against infection…..

A

If it is cut or grazed it immediately begins to heal itself, often by forming a scab, which prevents infection as the skin acts as a physical barrier.

186
Q

Explain how the eye prevent infection….

A

the eyes produce tears which contain
enzymes
. These enzymes are chemical barriers.

187
Q

Explain how the noise acts as a physical barrier against infection…

A

The nose has internal hairs, which act as a physical barrier to infection. Cells in the nose produce
mucus
. This traps pathogens before they can enter the lungs. When the nose is blown, mucus is removed and any pathogens are trapped within it.

188
Q

Explain how the mucus and ciliated cells prevent infection….

A

1.The ciliated cells waft their hairs in a motion move mucus and pathogens upwards towards the throat where it is swallowed into your stomach
2. Other cells called
goblet cells
create the mucus in order to trap pathogens. The production of mucus in your airways is a physical barrier.

189
Q

What are goblet cells!?

A

Cells in the lining of the airways that produce mucus to trap dust and pathogens.

190
Q

What are the chemical barriers against infection!?

A

Stomach acid
Lysozymes

191
Q

Explain how stomach acid acts as a barrier against infection!!!!

A

The hydrochloric acid in our stomachs does not break down food. It is hydrochloric acid and while it does us no harm, it is strong enough to kill any pathogens that have been caught in mucus in the airways or consumed in food or water.

192
Q

Explain how a lysosome acts as a barrier against infections…..

A

To stop eye infections we have evolved chemicals within our tears called
lysozymes

193
Q

What are lysozomes!?

A

Enzymes found in tears that destroy bacterial cells

194
Q

Where can lysozomes be found!?

A

Lysozymes are found in saliva, breast milk and mucus, as well as in tears

195
Q

Name an infection that can be a result of pathogens not being killed by lysozomes…..

A

Conjunctivitis

196
Q

How can you catch a communicable disease!?

A

You can catch a communicable disease when you are exposed to a
pathogen

197
Q

What is the body’s second line of defence against infection caused!?

A

The immune system

198
Q

What is the immune system!?

A

The body’s defence system against entry of any foreign body, including pathogens and agents such as pollen grains. The role of the immune system is to prevent disease.

199
Q

What are the names of the 2 types of white blood cell found in our immune system

A

Phagocytes and lymphocytes

200
Q

What are phagocytes!?

A

Cells, such as white blood cells, that engulf and absorb waste material, harmful microorganisms, or other foreign bodies in the bloodstream and tissues.

201
Q

What are lymphocytes!?

A

White blood cells which attack pathogens by producing antibodies.

202
Q

Describe how phagocytes destroy pathogens…

A

The phagocytes’ membrane surrounds the pathogen and the
enzymes
found inside the cell, then break down the pathogen in order to destroy it

203
Q

As phagocytes carry out the same process when destroying all pathogens what do we call it!?

A

Non-specific

204
Q

Describe the first step to lymphocytes destroying pathogens…..

A

They recognise proteins on the surface of pathogens called
antigens

205
Q

What is an antigen!?

A

A protein on the surface of a substance (often a pathogen) that triggers an immune response.

206
Q

Describe the second step to lymphocytes destroying pathogens…..

A

Lymphocytes detect that both the proteins and pathogens are foreign, not naturally occurring within your body and produce
antibodies

207
Q

What are antibodies!?

A

A protein produced by the immune system in humans (and other animals) that attacks foreign organisms (antigens) that get into the body.

208
Q

Describe the third step to lymphocytes destroying pathogens…..

A

This can take a few days, during which time you may feel ill. The antibodies created by the lymphocytes cause pathogens to stick together, and make it easier for phagocytes to engulf them.

209
Q

What is the name of the specific type of lymphocyte and what can it do!?

A

A specific type of lymphocyte called a memory lymphocyte can ‘remember’ the antigens from an infection by a previous pathogen

210
Q

What will happen if memory lymphocyte receives a second exposure to the pathogen!?

A

A second exposure to it will result in a much faster immune response. Antibodies will be produced much faster, which often stops us becoming ill again. There are hundreds of common colds caused by different viruses

211
Q

Why is it unlikely for you to become infected by the same virus again!?

A

It is very unlikely you will become infected by the same virus because memory lymphocytes exist to fight the infection immediately. This response to a known antigen is called the secondary response and it is much quicker than the response to an antigen for the first time.

212
Q

What happens during primary infection!?

A

the antibodies slowly increase, peak at around ten days and then gradually decrease

213
Q

What happens during a second exposure to the Primary infection!?

A

A second exposure to the same pathogen causes the white blood cells to respond quickly in order to produce lots of the relevant antibodies, which prevents infection.

214
Q

What do some pathogens produce!?

A

Some pathogens produce
toxins
which make you feel ill

215
Q

How do lymphocytes destroy toxins caused by pathogens!?

A

Lymphocytes can also produce antitoxins to neutralise these toxins. Both the antibodies and antitoxins are highly specific to the antigen on the pathogen

216
Q

What do we call a lymphocyte!?

A

Specific

217
Q

What is immunisation!?

A

The introduction of an inactive form of a disease into the human body that causes the immune system to produce antibodies against that disease.

218
Q

What does immunisation allow!?

A

It allows an inactive form of the disease causing pathogen to be introduced into the body, which contain a specific
antigen

This causes the
immune system
, specifically the
white blood cells
, to produce complementary
antibodies
, which target and attach to the antigen.

219
Q

What is the first step of immunisation!?

A

A syringe injects an altered form of the pathogen

220
Q

What is the second step of immunisation!?

A

White blood cells releases complementary antibodies to the specific antigen

221
Q

What is the third step of immunisation!?

A

They attach and clump pathogens together

222
Q

What is the fourth step of immunisation!?

A

White blood cells engulf the pathogens and phagocytosis occurs

223
Q

What are antibiotics!?

A

Substance that controls the spread of bacteria in the body by killing them or stopping them reproducing.

224
Q

What do antibiotics allow!?

A

Antibiotics
are substances that slow down or stop the growth of
bacteria

225
Q

What are some examples of antibiotics!?

A

penicillin and amoxicillin

226
Q

What types of disease do antibiotics cure!?

A

Bacterial not viral!!!!

227
Q

When was penicillin first discovered!?

A

In 1928 by Alexander Fleming

228
Q

What did Fleming notice!?

A

He noticed that some bacteria he had left in a
petri dish
had been killed by the naturally occurring Penicillium
mould
.

229
Q

How do antibiotics work!?

A

Antibiotics damage the bacterial cells by inhibiting their cellular processes, but do not damage the host cells

230
Q

What ability do antibiotics have!?

A

They have the ability to cure some bacterial diseases that would have previously killed many people.

231
Q

What has improved since the introduction of antibiotics!?

A

Since their introduction, they have had a large influence on the world’s health and death rate.

232
Q

Why are a range of different range of antibiotics is needed!?

A

One antibiotic may only work against one type of bacteria, or a few types. This means that a range of different antibiotics is needed for the treatment of the whole range of bacterial diseases.

233
Q

Why can viral diseases not be cured by antibiotics!?

A

Viral diseases cannot be cured by antibiotics, as they reproduce inside the host cells.

234
Q

Why is it hard to develop an antiviral drug!?

A

It is very difficult to develop antiviral drugs, as they might damage the host cell whist killing the virus.

235
Q

What do antiviral drugs do!? And what does this mean!?

A

Antiviral drugs only slow down viral development, and viruses change their
antigens
quickly which means new drugs have to be generated regularly.

236
Q

What is the first step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

A virus enters the cell

237
Q

What is the second step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

Substances in the cell begin to strip off the virus’s outer coat of protein

238
Q

What is the third step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

The nucleic acid in the centre of the virus is released

239
Q

What is the fourth step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

The nucleic acid gets into the cells’s chemical manufacturing system

240
Q

What is the fourth step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

The cell ignores its own chemical needs and switches to making new viruses

241
Q

What is the fifth step of a cell killing a viral infection!?

A

The cell is sometimes destroyed in the process. Many of the new viruses are released to infect other cells

242
Q

What are the 3 main problems of prescribed antibiotics!?

A

1.over use of antibiotics
2.failing to complete the fully prescribed course by a doctor
3.use of antibiotics in farming

243
Q

What can these problems lead to!?

A

These can lead to the effectiveness of antibiotics being reduced, and the incidence of antibiotic resistance increasing. These bacteria are commonly known as superbugs.

244
Q

What happens when a patient fails to complete a full course of antibiotics!?

A

Patients should always fully complete the prescribed course of antibiotics, every time they are taken. This ensures all bacteria are killed, and so none survive which can subsequently mutate and produce resistant strains.

245
Q

Describe what happens to patients when they first begin taking antibiotics….

A

Some patients begin to feel well after a few days of taking the medicine, and stop taking them.

246
Q

Why is it harmful I’m an patient stops taking their antibiotics through out their course!?

A

This is potentially very harmful, as random
mutations
can occur which can lead to
antibiotic resistance
. The resistant bacteria reproduce quickly, and the resistance spreads.

247
Q

Previously what were antibiotics used for!?

A

Previously, antibiotics were regularly used in farming

248
Q

What can antibiotics prevent in animals!?

A

these can be used to prevent disease, keep the animals well and allow them to grow quickly.

249
Q

What does the effect of the the high use in agriculture have!?

A

The high use in agriculture may have a cost, as it could lead to spread of antibiotic resistance from animals into human hosts

250
Q

What is now in place to reduce the high use of antibiotics in animals!?

A

Legal controls are now in place to try and reduce the use of antibiotics in this way.

251
Q

What are the 4 ways to reduce antibiotic resistance!?

A

1.Only take when necessary.
2.Treat specific bacteria with specific antibiotics.
3.High hospital hygiene levels, including regular hand washing by staff and visitors.
4.patients, who are infected with antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria, should be isolated from other patients.

252
Q

What is the future of antibiotics!?

A

The development of new antibiotics has slowed down as it becomes difficult to find new versions to tackle different bacterial infections. Some limited success with new antibiotic search has occurred recently.

253
Q

What are some people concerned about antibiotics for the future!?

A

People are concerned that in the near future, some bacteria will be resistant to all known antibiotics.

254
Q

Historically where have drugs come from!?

A

drugs have come from nature, as parts of plants and microorganisms have been extracted

255
Q

Give an example of a naturally sourced drug….

A

willow bark was used by the ancient Greeks to help cure fevers and pains. It was later discovered that the active ingredient was salicylic acid.

256
Q

How has willow bark been modified by chemists!?

A

This was modified by chemists into the substance we call aspirin, which is less irritating to the stomach than salicylic acid.

257
Q

Name another drug that is naturally extracted…

A

Another example is the heart drug, digitalis which is extracted from foxgloves.

258
Q

Where are drugs commonly made now!?

A

most drugs are now created in a laboratory by scientists at
pharmaceutical
companies. These companies now have
synthetic
versions of the plant extracts, and use these as the starting point to develop new drugs.

259
Q

What is a pharmiceuical company!?

A

Relating to medicines and drugs, and their production, sale and use.

260
Q

What does the trial and testing of drugs before patients can take them allow doctors to check for!?

A

Safety
Effectiveness
Dosage

261
Q

Why is checking the safety of the drug before a patient can take them important!?

A

This is important as some drugs are toxic, and have other side effects that might be harmful to people.

262
Q

Why is checking the effectiveness of the drug before a patient can take them important!?

A

This is also known as efficacy, and checks how well the drug cures the disease, or improves symptoms.

263
Q

Why is checking the dosage of the drug before a patient can take them important!?

A

This varies, and has to closely controlled, as too high a concentration might be toxic.

264
Q

What are the 3 main stages of testing drugs!?

A
  1. Preclinical drug trials
  2. Animal trials
  3. Human clinical trials
265
Q

What are preclinical drug trials!?

A

The drugs are tested using computer models and human cells grown in the laboratory. This allows the efficacy and possible side effects to be tested.

266
Q

Why do many Preclinical drug trials fail!?

A

Many substances fail this test because they damage cells or do not seem to work.

267
Q

What are animal trials!?

A

Drugs that pass the first stage are tested on animals. In the UK, new medicines have to undergo these tests. But it is illegal to test cosmetics and tobacco products on animals

268
Q

What does a typical animal trial involve!?

A

A typical test involves giving a known amount of the substance to the animals, then monitoring them carefully for any side-effects.

269
Q

What are human clinical trials!?

A

Drugs that have passed animal tests are used in clinical trials. They are tested on healthy volunteers to check that they are safe. The substances are then tested on people with the illness to ensure that they are safe and that they work

270
Q

What dosage is used in human clinical trials to begin with!?

A

Low doses of the drug are used initially, and if this is safe the dosage increases until the optimum dosage is identified.

271
Q

What do some people say about drug testing!?

A

Some people consider drug trials to be dangerous. Everything comes with a level of risk.

272
Q

What is Thalidomide!?

A

Thalidomide is a medical drug

273
Q

What did Thalidomide cause!?

A

It caused unexpected and serious damage to unborn babies in the 1950s and 1960s

274
Q

What was Thalidomide developed as!?

A

Thalidomide was developed as a sleeping pill, but it was also thought to be useful for easing morning sickness in pregnant women. Unfortunately, it had not been tested for use in this way.

275
Q

What was Thalidomide found to do!?

A

thalidomide was found to damage the development of unborn babies, especially if it had been taken in the first four to eight weeks of pregnancy

276
Q

What did the drug do to these unborn babies!?

A

The drug led to the arms or legs of the babies being very short or incompletely formed

277
Q

How many babies were affected by Thalidomide!?

A

More than 10,000 babies were affected around the world.

278
Q

What was the result after the affected Thalidomide had on babies!?

A

As a result of this disaster, thalidomide was banned. Drug testing was also made more rigorous than before.

279
Q

What is Thalidomide used for today!?

A

Thalidomide is now used as a treatment for leprosy and bone cancer. Its use is heavily regulated, however, to prevent a repeat of the problems it caused in the last century.

280
Q

List 5 non-communicable diseases….

A

1.cancer
2.diabetes
3.genetic disorders and conditions
4.heart disease
5.neurological disorders

281
Q

What do defects in the immune system mean!?

A

that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases.

282
Q

What is meant by many different diseases interact!?

A

This can mean that the presence of one disease can lead to a higher chance of developing another disease.

283
Q

What can viruses living in cells trigger!?

A

Cancer

284
Q

What are unfortunately the majority of cervix cancer linked to!?

A

Are linked with a virus present in the female reproductive system

285
Q

What is a risk factor!?

A

Something that increases a person’s chances of developing a disease.

286
Q

What can risk factors be caused by!?

A

Risk factors can be caused by
lifestyle factors
or substances in a person’s body or their environment. Some diseases are caused by an interaction between risk factors.

287
Q

What is the risk factor of type 2 diabetes!?

A

Obesity

288
Q

What affects does type 2 diabetes and obesity have!?

A

Blood sugar levels cannot be regulated properly

289
Q

What is the risk factor of liver cirrhosis!?

A

Alcohol

290
Q

What affect does alcohol have on the liver causing this disease!?

A

Scar tissue is formed in the liver which stops it removing toxins

291
Q

What is the risk factor to lung cancer!?

A

Smoking

292
Q

What affect dies smoking have on the lungs unfortunately causing this disease!?

A

Smoking causes lung cancer and also the underdevelopment of unborn babies

293
Q

What is a correlation!?

A

A relationship between two sets of data, such that when one set changes you would expect the other set to change as well.

294
Q

With what diseases have scientists found correlations!?

A

With cancer and other non-communicable diseases, scientists have found correlations.

295
Q

If there is a correlation between a particular factor and an outcome, it does not mean that!?

A

that the factor necessarily causes the outcome. Scientists must look for a possible mechanism by which the factor could be the likely cause.

296
Q

What has analysis of cigarettes shown in terms of lung cancer!?

A

In the case of lung cancer, analyses of cigarette smoke have shown that at least 70 of the chemicals present in smoke will cause cancer in laboratory animals which establishes a causal link.

297
Q

What type of disease is cancer and when does form!?

A

Cancers are
non-communicable diseases
. This means they cannot be caught. Instead they develop. Cancers occur when cell division goes wrong.

298
Q

Cancers occur when cell division goes wrong what does this cause!?

A

This causes cells to grow out of control, which form a
tumour
.

299
Q

What are the 2 types of cancerous tumour!?

A

Malignant and benign

300
Q

What are malignant tumours!?

A

these tumours are cancerous and can break apart, move around the body and start new cancers in a process called metastasis

301
Q

What is a benign tumour!?

A

these tumours are less serious because they are not cancerous, and do not spread

302
Q

How are cancers looked for by doctors!?

A

Cancers are looked for by doctors in a process called screening

303
Q

What are the types of screening!?

A

This can be in an x-ray, in blood or urine tests or by using
monoclonal antibodies
.

304
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody!?

A

Identical copies of an antibody produced by fusing a spleen cell with a cancerous white blood cell which can be designed to bind to many different substances.

305
Q

What are many cancers caused by!?

A

Many cancers are caused by smoking or drinking too much.

Other causes include the Sun’s UV rays and some environmental pollutants. The risk of cancer also increases as we get older.

306
Q

What are unfortunately the most frequent cancers in the UK!?

A

breast, lung and bowel cancers, and prostate cancer in men

307
Q

What are the 3 types of cancer treatments!?

A
  1. By chemotherapy
  2. By radiotherapy
  3. By palliative care
308
Q

What is chemotherapy!?

A

The use of chemicals to treat cancer. The chemicals used are highly toxic to cells that divide rapidly.

309
Q

What is radiotherapy!?

A

Using ionising radiation to treat cancer by targeting cancerous cells.

310
Q

What is palliative care!?

A

Health care that focuses on relieving and preventing suffering, typically near the end of a patient’s life when they are terminally ill.

311
Q

Many cancers are less likely to occur if….

A

Many cancers are less likely to develop if people lead healthy lifestyles. This means not smoking, exercising regularly and eating healthy foods.

312
Q

What does smoking increase the risk of!?

A

cardiovascular disease

313
Q

What is a cardiovascular disease!?

A

Relating to the heart and the blood vessels

314
Q

In what ways can smoking increase the risk of a cardiovascular disease!?

A

Smoking damages the lining of the
arteries
, including the
coronary
arteries. The damage encourages the build-up of fatty material in the arteries

315
Q

What can damage to the lining or arteries potentially lead to!?

A

This can lead to a
heart attack or a stroke

316
Q

What is a heart attack!?

A

When the supply of blood to the heart is suddenly blocked.

317
Q

What is a stroke!?

A

Damage to the brain caused by bleeding or blood clots in the brain’s blood vessels.

318
Q

How can the inhalation of carbon monoxide in cigarettes increase the risk of a cardiovascular disease!?

A

Inhalation of
carbon monoxide
in cigarette smoke reduces the amount of oxygen that can be carried by the blood.

319
Q

How can the nicotine in cigarette smoke increase the risk of a cardiovascular disease!?

A

The
nicotine
in cigarette smoke increases heart rate, putting strain on the heart.

320
Q

What is nicotine!?

A

The addictive substance found in tobacco and tobacco smoke.

321
Q

How can the chemicals in cigarettes increase the risk of a cardiovascular disease!?

A

Chemicals in cigarette smoke increase the likelihood of the
blood clotting
, resulting in a heart attack or
stroke
.

322
Q

What is a blood clot!?

A

A clump of platelets and blood cells that forms when a blood vessel is damaged.

323
Q

What may a person develop from smoking cigarettes!?

A

A person may develop
COPD

324
Q

What is COPD!?

A

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is the name to several lung diseases that restrict air flow in the lungs and cause breathing difficulties for a patient.

325
Q

Which diseases does COPD include!?

A

chronic bronchitis and emphysema

326
Q

What is bronchitis!?

A

bronchitis
Inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles

327
Q

What is emphysema!?

A

Disease in which the walls of the alveoli break down, reducing the surface area for gas exchange in the lungs

328
Q

What happens when a person unfortunately had COPD!?

A

1.smoking damages the
bronchioles
and can eventually destroy many of the
alveoli
in the lungs
2.the airways become inflamed and
mucus
, which normally traps particles in the lungs, builds up
3.the patient becomes breathless, and finds it more and more difficult to obtain the oxygen required for
respiration

329
Q

Can COPD be cured!?

A

The damage caused by COPD is permanent. The disease cannot be cured, and can result in death. It is essential that the person seeks medical help to try to prevent progression of the disease.

330
Q

What do the carcinogens in cigarette smoke also cause!?

A

Lung cancer

331
Q

What are almost all cases of lung cancer caused by!?

A

Smoking

332
Q

What are Smaller number of linger cancer unfortunately caused by!?

A

smaller numbers of cases are linked with air pollution and
ionising radiation
from radon gas, a
radioactive

element
found in the environment in some parts of the country.

333
Q

Why is ,in cancer more common in women than men!?

A

The main reason is because numbers of female smokers - unlike men - continued to increase in the 1950s and 1960s before starting to fall.

334
Q

What does evidence also suggest about women unfortunately getting lung cancer!?

A

Cancer may take some years to develop, so a fall in female rates of lung cancer is likely to occur later. Evidence also suggests that women are more susceptible to developing the condition.

335
Q

Which organ can drinking excess alcohol damage!?

A

can damage the liver, the organ responsible for processing and breaking down alcohol.

336
Q

What is alcohol!?

A

A depressant that can be found in wines, spirits and beers. Also known as ethanol.

337
Q

What can the liver do in terms of alcohol consumption!?

A

The liver can
regenerate
its cells, but long-term alcohol abuse causes serious damage.

338
Q

What does regenerate mean!?

A

To restore something to its original form. Certain tissues and organs can regenerate themselves by producing new cells.

339
Q

What is the first symptom that a patient has got liver damage from excess alcohol!?

A

The patient begins by feeling sick, experiences weight loss and loss of appetite. There is a yellowing of the eyes, confusion, drowsiness and vomiting blood.

340
Q

What is the second symptom that a patient has got liver damage from excess alcohol!?

A

Alcohol causes lipids to build up in the
liver
which is called fatty liver disease.

341
Q

What is the liver!?

A

The large organ, beside the stomach, which has many functions, including processing substances absorbed by the digestive system and a role in the storage of the body’s carbohydrate.

342
Q

What is the third symptom that a patient has got liver damage from excess alcohol!?

A

Alcohol damage leads to alcoholic
hepatitis
, which can lead to death.

343
Q

What is hepatitis!?

A

Inflammation or swelling of the liver, for example because of infection by a virus or drinking too much alcohol. which can sadly lead to death.

344
Q

What is the fourth symptom that a patient has got liver damage from excess alcohol!?

A

Cirrhosis
of the liver can develop - the liver becomes scarred and loses its ability to function.

345
Q

What is cirrhosis!?

A

Scarring of the liver, which can be caused by alcoholism or hepatitis.

346
Q

What is the fifth symptom that a patient has got liver damage from excess alcohol!?

A

The changes are now irreversible and the reduced ability to process alcohol can also lead to brain damage.

347
Q

Name the 5 ways that alcohol affects the brain…..

A

1.slows reaction time
2.causes difficulty walking
3.can impair memory
4.causes slurred speech
5.causes changes in sleep patterns and mood, including increased anxiety and depression.

348
Q

What are the 4 main long term edicts of drinking excess alcohol…..

A

1.causes brain shrinkage
2.leads to memory problems
3.leads to psychiatric problems
4.may result in the patient requiring long-term care.

349
Q

What are the social impacts of alcoholism….

A

1.there is increased violence, antisocial behaviour and other crime associated with alcoholism
2.there is an increased risk of accidents
3. alcoholism causes mental decline

350
Q

What are the economic impacts of alcoholism!?

A
  1. alcoholism increases treatment costs to NHS
  2. there is increased absence from work
351
Q

What does obesity lead to!?

A

Obesity
leads to high
blood pressure
and the build-up of fatty deposits in the arteries, which lead to
cardiovascular
disease. It also increases the likelihood of developing
diabetes, another risk factor cardiovascular disease

352
Q

What is blood pressure!?

A

The force of blood against the artery walls

353
Q

What does being obese - with deposits of lipids in the abdomen increase

A

increases blood pressure beyond normal levels and increases levels of blood lipids.

354
Q

What dies body fat also effect!?

A

Body fat also affects the body’s ability to use
insulin

355
Q

What is insulin!?

A

A hormone that regulates the level of sugar in the blood and can be produced by genetically modified bacteria

356
Q

What is type 2 diabetes!?

A

Type 2 diabetes is where the body’s cells lose their sensitivity to insulin – they no longer respond, or respond less effectively, to the insulin that’s produced.

357
Q

What % does obesity account for the risk of type 2 diabetes!?

A

80-85%

358
Q

What is risking obesity linked to!?

A

Rising obesity is linked with ‘western diet’ - a diet that includes energy-rich ‘fast foods’ and an inactive lifestyle.

359
Q

What do bar charts show in terms of type 2 diabetes!?

A

The bar charts show the increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes associated with people’s
Body Mass Index (BMI)

360
Q

What’s BMI!?

A

BMI
Body Mass Index, calculated by dividing a person’s mass (in kilograms) by the square of their height (in metres).

361
Q

Is there a cure for type 2 diabetes!?

A

There is no cure for type 2 diabetes, but it may be possible to control it by diet and exercise.

362
Q

How can the risk of type 2 diabetes and a cardiovascular disease be reduced!?

A

by eating a balanced diet, with unrefined, unprocessed, ‘whole foods’, and taking regular exercise.

363
Q

Both BMI and the ratio between a person’s waist and hip measurements give what!?

A

generalised view of a person’s health. It can be unhelpful to draw too many conclusions from these values, but they are a useful starting point.

364
Q

How is BMI calculated!?

A

BMI is calculated as: mass (kg) / (height (m))2

365
Q

How is obesity usually defined in terms of BMI!?

A

Obesity is often defined as a value of BMI above 30

366
Q

How is waist:hip ratio measured!?

A

Waist:hip ratio is calculated by dividing your waist measurement (in cm) by your hip measurement (also in cm).

367
Q

How do the The World Health Organisation define obesity in waist:hip measurement!?

A

The World Health Organisation define obesity in waist:hip measurement as a value higher than 0.85 in women and 1.0 in men.

368
Q

What is Epidemiology!?

A

The study of the distribution and patterns of health and disease, in and across populations.

369
Q

What do scientists study when investigating causes of disease!?

A

Scientists study the incidence of disease, using medical records, and use medical research to investigate causes of disease.

370
Q

Why must scientists study samples!?

A

scientists can’t study every person on the planet. Scientists must study
samples
.

371
Q

What is a sample!?

A

A representative part of a larger quantity

372
Q

What must samples be!?

A

Samples must be
representative
- they must reflect the population under study

373
Q

What is representative!?

A

A representative sample is one that accurately represents the whole of the group.

374
Q

What must samples not be!?

A

1.focus on certain groups and ignore others
2.be affected by bias

375
Q

What is meant by the term bias!?

A

Prejudice or favour shown for one person, group, thing or opinion over another.

376
Q

What are the 2 things we must do to obtain a representative sample!?

A

1.the study must be wide, and cover all groups in the population being studied
2.the study must be random within these groups

377
Q

What might sampling be!?

A

Sampling might be systematic in that it is carried out at regular time intervals.

378
Q

When working with samples of human populations, studies must take account of possible variations owing to difference. What are these 3 differences!?

A

1.between the sexes
2.resulting from people of different ages taking part
3.in people’s lifestyles, which could affect the study

379
Q

How can sample analysis be carried out!?

A

Analyses can be carried out on sub-sets of data within the whole study, so that comparisons can be made within the same age group, for instance.

380
Q

In scientific studies, it may be difficult to control lifestyle factors why!?

A

In scientific studies, it may be difficult to control lifestyle factors that have the potential to affect the study, particularly if the study is long-term. People involved in a long-term study of the effects of alcohol intake, for instance, will have different lifestyle factors, for instance diet and exercise that could potentially affect the results of the study.

381
Q

Where possible, what do scientists do to data!?

A

Where possible, scientists adjust data mathematically so that factors can be removed that might distort a comparison between groups. Data must be adjusted, for instance, to make allowances for the effects of age on rates of disease.

382
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to cancer!?

A

80

383
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to a cardiovascular disease !?

A

62

384
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to drug related death!?

A

11

385
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to an infection !?

A

3

386
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to an injury!?

A

35

387
Q

What was the number of deaths that could be avoided, rate per 100,000 of population due to a respiratory disease !?

A

23

388
Q

In the year 2006 how many women in England and Scotland unfortunately pass away from an alcohol related death!?

A

England: 9.3
Scotland: 19.6

389
Q

In the year 2007 how many women in England and Scotland unfortunately pass away from an alcohol related death!?

A

England: 9.5
Scotland:16.9

390
Q

In the year 2008 how many women in England and Scotland unfortunately pass away from an alcohol related death!?

A

England: 9.4
Scotland: 16.7

391
Q

In the year 2010 how many women in England and Scotland unfortunately pass away from an alcohol related death!?

A

England:8.9
Scotland: 16.0

392
Q

When does Coronary heart disease occur!?

A

Coronary heart disease occurs when a waxy plaque builds up inside the coronary arteries that supply the heart with oxygen.

393
Q

What can help control a cardiovascular disease!?

A

Drugs and surgery can help to control
cardiovascular
disease.

394
Q

What are used to help lower cholesterol!? And how do they do it!?

A

Statins are drugs They do this by lowering the production of cholesterol in the
liver
.

395
Q

When are statins prescribed!?

A

Statins are prescribed for people with heart disease or who have a high risk of developing it

396
Q

How long to statins need to be taken for!?

A

They need to be taken long-term.
Cholesterol
levels will rise again if a person stops taking them.

397
Q

What is cholesterol!?

A

cholesterol
A type of lipid (fatty substance)

398
Q

What have some studies of statins shown!?

A

Some studies have raised concerns regarding the side effects of statin use, while others believe they can bring additional positive benefits.

399
Q

Why are statins not suitable for everyone!?

A

they should not be prescribed for people with liver disease, or pregnant or breast feeding women.

400
Q

What side effects do some of statin users have!?

A

such as headaches and memory loss. There have been reports of statins being linked with type 2
diabetes
and liver damage.

401
Q

Why do other people argue that statins should be used more widely!?

A

They may protect against other conditions such as
Alzheimer’s disease
. Further research is needed.

402
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease!?

A

A disease in which the brain degenerates and short term memory is lost.

403
Q

When is a stent used!?

A

Coronary arteries that are blocked or have become narrow can be stretched open and a
stent
inserted to restore and maintain blood flow.

404
Q

What is a stent!?

A

A device, consisting of a wire mesh tube, used to keep a narrowed or blocked coronary artery open.

405
Q

Why are stents more beneficial than drugs!?

A

They can be used in instances where drugs are less effective, and offer a longer term solution. Stents are made from metal
alloys
and do not lead to an immune response in the patient

406
Q

How many stent operations are carried out each year!?

A

75,000

407
Q

What are the 3 risk factors that depend on the patient’s when having a stent surgery:

A

1.age
2.general health
3.whether they have had a heart attack

408
Q

Is the stent surgery safe!?

A

The operation is safe as it does not involve surgery, but there is a risk of bleeding, heart attack or stroke.

409
Q

When are heart transplants required!?

A

A
heart transplant
is required in cases of
heart failure
.

410
Q

What can lead to heart failure!?

A

Coronary heart disease
can lead to heart failure. The heart fails to pump sufficient blood and
organs
are starved of
oxygen
. There will be degrees of severity of heart failure.

411
Q

What is a heart transplant!?

A

An operation to replace a damaged heart with a healthy heart from a donor.

412
Q

Who’s heart is transplanted!?

A

A
donor
heart is transplanted. In rare cases, a heart is transplanted along with lungs.

413
Q

What is a donor!?

A

A person or organism providing an organ or tissue for transplant.

414
Q

When is a heart transplant needed!?

A

A consultant assesses the patient’s condition. If other treatments are not managing the heart condition, a transplant may be recommended and a patient will be put on a waiting list

415
Q

What affect does a heart transplant have on the body!?

A

A transplant puts major strain on the body, and the benefits and risks will be evaluated including whether the patient’s condition is sufficiently severe and other health factors.

416
Q

How many heart transplants are carried out each year in the UK!?

A

200

417
Q

Why is there on,y a small amount of heart transplants carried out on the UK!?

A

There is a shortage of donor hearts in the UK. Only around 200 transplants are carried out each year in a small number of hospitals.

418
Q

What are artificial hearts!?

A

Artificial hearts are plastic devices used occasionally to keep patients alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant. They can also be used to allow a patient’s heart to rest to help it recover.

419
Q

What will a patient do after a heart transplant!?

A

1.need time to heal, recover and build up strength
2.have to take drugs called
immunosuppressant drugs
for the rest of their life - this prevents the person’s immune system from rejecting the donor heart
3.have an increased risk of infection because of these drugs

420
Q

What are immunosuppressant drugs!?

A

A type of drug that prevents a patient’s immune system from rejecting a transplant.

421
Q

What are used alongside heart conditions and transplants prolong life!?

A

Drugs used alongside heart conditions and transplants prolong life.

422
Q

What does the NHS data show about heart transplant life expectancy!?

A

> 1 80-90%
5 70-75%
10 50%

423
Q

What are the advantages to taking statins!?

A

Reduce the risk of heart attack. Studies have shown a decrease in ‘bad cholesterol’ and an increase in ‘good cholesterol’. Used to reduce high cholesterol levels that have genetic causes. May have beneficial effects on other conditions

424
Q

What are the disadvantages to taking statins!?

A

Not suitable for people with liver disease. Some side effects. Must be taken for life. Should not be taken if pregnant or breastfeeding.

425
Q

What are the disadvantages of a heart transplant!?

A

Few donor hearts are available. Recovery time is long. There is a risk of rejection by the body’s immune system.

426
Q

What are the advantages of a heart transplant!?

A

Improve quality of life.

427
Q

What are the advantages of stents!?

A

Widen coronary arteries that have not responded to drug treatment. The recovery time is short following insertion of the stent.

428
Q

What are the disadvantages of stents!?

A

In a minority of cases, further treatment is required.

429
Q

What are the disadvantages of lifestyle changes!?

A

These changes alone may not be enough to prevent further complications.

430
Q

What are the advantages of lifestyle changes!?

A

These include stopping smoking, reducing alcohol intake, eating a balanced diet and regular exercise. These changes will improve the health of all people; those with and without cardiovascular disease

Biology (6 decks)

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