health and the people Flashcards
Hippocrates
In medieval society, people thought that illnesses were caused by ______ and _________ causes. 2 famous physicians (doctors) were credited with a lot of the theories of medieval medicine: Hippocrates and Galen.
Background of Hippocrates
Hippocrates (born in 460 BC) lived in Ancient Greece. He advocated (supported)... These included: Clinical \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Theory. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ oath.
Clinical Observation
Hippocrates invented the idea of ‘clinical observation’.
This involved a doctor being _________ (independent) and using ________ and _____ to deduce …
A doctor should _______ and _______ a patient’s symptoms to …
The Hippocratic Oath
Doctors today take the Hippocratic oath and this binds them to keep to a set of … to treat their patients well.
The Four Humours Theory
_________ also developed the theory of the four humours.
To be healthy, the Ancient Greeks believed that a person needed to … People got diseases if …
Hippocrates
In medieval society, people thought that illnesses were caused by natural and supernatural causes. 2 famous physicians (doctors) were credited with a lot of the theories of medieval medicine: Hippocrates and Galen.
Background of Hippocrates
Hippocrates (born in 460 BC) lived in Ancient Greece.
He advocated (supported) using natural treatments to treat diseases and developed lots of theories about medicine.
These included:
Clinical observation.
The Four Humours Theory.
Hippocratic oath.
Clinical Observation
Hippocrates invented the idea of ‘clinical observation’.
This involved a doctor being objective (independent) and using observation and logic to deduce what was wrong with a patient.
A doctor should examine and monitor a patient’s symptoms to diagnose their disease or illness.
The Hippocratic Oath
Doctors today take the Hippocratic oath and this binds them to keep to a set of ethical standards to treat their patients well.
The Four Humours Theory
Hippocrates also developed the theory of the four humours.
To be healthy, the Ancient Greeks believed that a person needed to have balanced humours. People got diseases if they had too much or too little of a humour.
The Four Humours Theory
Hippocrates thought that the best way to get humours back into balance was ______ or ______.
Black bile
The Ancient Greeks believed black bile was produced in the _______. Black bile was considered ____ and ___.
To remedy a black bile imbalance, doctors …
Blood
The Ancient Greeks believed blood was produced in the ____. Blood was considered ___ and ___.
To remedy a blood imbalance, doctors …
Phlegm
The Ancient Greeks believed phlegm was produced in the _____ and ____. Phlegm was considered ___ and ___.
To remedy a phlegm imbalance, doctors suggested …
Yellow bile
The Ancient Greeks believed bile was produced in the ____. Yellow bile was considered …
To remedy a yellow bile imbalance, doctors …
The Four Humours Theory
Hippocrates thought that the best way to get humours back into balance was bleeding or purging.
Black bile
The Ancient Greeks believed black bile was produced in the gallbladder. Black bile was considered cold and dry.
To remedy a black bile imbalance, doctors gave laxatives and suggested eating more vegetables.
Blood
The Ancient Greeks believed blood was produced in the liver. Blood was considered hot and wet.
To remedy a blood imbalance, doctors used bloodletting or suggested eating red meat and drinking red wine.
Phlegm
The Ancient Greeks believed phlegm was produced in the brain and lungs. Phlegm was considered cold and wet.
To remedy a phlegm imbalance, doctors suggested breathing steam, or eating vegetables filled with water.
Yellow bile
The Ancient Greeks believed bile was produced in the spleen. Yellow bile was considered hot and dry.
To remedy a yellow bile imbalance, doctors forced patients to throw up or change their diet.
Claudius Galen
The Greek _________, Claudius Galen was born in ___ AD in _____ but he then lived in ____ later in his life.
Similar views to Hippocrates
Galen believed that … caused diseases.
He supported ______ observation and encouraged doctors to monitor a _____ or take ____ sample to find out what was wrong with a patient.
But Galen thought that blood was _____ or taken in by the _____, rather than …
Theory of Opposites
Galen advanced the understanding of the humours through his Theory of Opposites.
He thought that humours could be ________ by giving a patient something opposite to their ________.
For example, if you had an _______ of blood (hot and wet), doctors should prescribe a treatment which was cold and ___.
Monotheistic
Although Galen lived in the Roman Empire he believed in _______ (one single God).
Because of this, the Christian Church ______ his ideas of medicine.
As the Church put their weight behind Galen’s ideas of medicine, it was frowned upon to _______ Galen.
Miasma Theory
The Miasma theory was also included in Galen’s thinking.
Miasma theory said that …
It was very popular in medieval England and it was probably the most powerful theory of ________ until late into the _____.
Ideas lasting for 1,400 years
Because of the Church’s support, Galen’s ideas endured (lasted) as the _______ of medicine for _____ years, until medieval times.
The fact that he was monotheistic and had the Church’s support shows that ______ can lead ideas to spread and be used everywhere.
Claudius Galen
The Greek physician, Claudius Galen was born in 129 AD in Greece but he then lived in Rome later in his life.
Similar views to Hippocrates
Galen believed that imbalances in the four humours of the body caused diseases.
He supported clinical observation and encouraged doctors to monitor a pulse or take urine sample to find out what was wrong with a patient.
But Galen thought that blood was absorbed or taken in by the body, rather than pumped around it.
Theory of Opposites
Galen advanced the understanding of the humours through his Theory of Opposites.
He thought that humours could be rebalanced by giving a patient something opposite to their symptoms.
For example, if you had an excess of blood (hot and wet), doctors should prescribe a treatment which was cold and dry.
Monotheistic
Although Galen lived in the Roman Empire he believed in monotheism (one single God).
Because of this, the Christian Church supported his ideas of medicine.
As the Church put their weight behind Galen’s ideas of medicine, it was frowned upon to question Galen.
Miasma Theory
The Miasma theory was also included in Galen’s thinking.
Miasma theory said that bad air made someone ill when they breathed it in.
It was very popular in medieval England and it was probably the most powerful theory of disease until late into the 1800s.
Ideas lasting for 1,400 years
Because of the Church’s support, Galen’s ideas endured (lasted) as the foundation of medicine for 1,400 years, until medieval times.
The fact that he was monotheistic and had the Church’s support shows that chance can lead ideas to spread and be used everywhere.
Doctors in Ancient ____ recommended ____ and ____ as medicines and they often used Galen’s Theory of _______.
Doctors in Ancient Rome recommended herbs and plants as medicines and they often used Galen’s Theory of Opposites.
Ancient Romans began to focus on public health by introducing aqueducts, sewers, baths and doctors.
Aqueducts, sewers and baths
Roman emperors spent a lot of money on building ________ to bring clean water into _____ cities.
This is likely to be because they thought that … , ______ and ____ tended to make people ill.
Ancient Romans built _____, _____ and public ____ that were used to take waste out of ______ and people’s ______.
Ancient Romans began to focus on public health by introducing aqueducts, sewers, baths and doctors.
Aqueducts, sewers and baths
Roman emperors spent a lot of money on building aqueducts to bring clean water into Roman cities.
This is likely to be because they thought that unclean drinking water, sewage and dirt tended to make people ill.
Ancient Romans built toilets, sewers and public baths that were used to take waste out of buildings and people’s homes.
Key areas of progress in medicine in Ancient RomeKey areas of progress in medicine in Ancient Rome
Key areas of progress in medicine in Ancient RomeKey areas of progress in medicine in Ancient Rome
water and hygiene
herbal remedies
The Roman Empire helped provide the _______ that helped ______ to ______.
This showed the importance of __________ in improving the state of medicine and ______.
The Roman Empire helped provide the systems that helped society to function.
This showed the importance of government in improving the state of medicine and health.
The Roman Empire did a good job of …
The Roman Empire did a good job of providing lots of food, housing and infrastructure
Ancient Romans took a wide range of herbs and plants to heal them in keeping with …
This continued the trend started in Ancient Egyptian society.
Ancient Romans took a wide range of herbs and plants to heal them in keeping with Galen’s Theory of Opposites.
This continued the trend started in Ancient Egyptian society.
Inequality was the key hindrance for the advancement of Ancient Roman medicine as lots of ____ people didn’t ______ from doctors, ________ and ______ remedies.
Inequality was the key hindrance for the advancement of Ancient Roman medicine as lots of poor people didn’t benefit from doctors, treatments and herbal remedies.
Why were Galen’s ideas so prominent?
Why were Galen’s ideas so prominent?
he had the church’s support
By ____ AD (CE), there had been lots of wars in the ______ Empire, particularly in ______ and _______ Europe.
Rome itself was sacked by the ________ in ___ AD.
By 530 AD (CE), there had been lots of wars in the Roman Empire, particularly in Western and Southern Europe.
Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD.
A lot of medieval medicine was based on the theories of medicine that came from … and …
A lot of medieval medicine was based on the theories of medicine that came from Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
Witches and spirits
Some people believed that __________ spirits could ____ inside a person and cause ______.
Some people in the Church did “_______” to get these spirits out of people’s bodies.
Witches were also thought to be responsible for …
Witches and spirits
Some people believed that supernatural spirits could live inside a person and cause illnesses.
Some people in the Church did “exorcisms” to get these spirits out of people’s bodies.
Witches were also thought to be responsible for some diseases spreading across a town.
Superstitutions about Disease in Medieval Times:
Superstitutions about Disease in Medieval Times:
Astrology
Witches and spirits
God
After the fall of Rome, _______ became smaller, people _______ less and ________ trusted each other less.
This meant that there was less sharing of __________ and less __________ between _______.
After the fall of Rome, empires became smaller, people travelled less and kingdoms trusted each other less.
This meant that there was less sharing of knowledge and less communication between doctors.
Astrology and medieval medicine:
1
The _________ reasons were based on astrology
2
Astrology was first used in ______ medicine
3
Astrology was used in Europe after ____
Astrology and medieval medicine:
1
The supernatural reasons were based on astrology
2
Astrology was first used in Arabic medicine
3
Astrology was used in Europe after 1100
Medieval ‘doctors’ were trained in the methods of:
Medieval ‘doctors’ were trained in the methods of:
1
Hippocrates
2
Galen
Medieval doctors usually learned through … or through …
They experimented with _____, _____ and learned from _________, …
Medieval doctors usually learned through word-of-mouth or through personal experience. They experimented with herbs, charms and learned from apothecaries, travelling healers and wise men/women.
The poor could only receive medical treatment in hospitals set up by whom?
The poor could only receive medical treatment in hospitals set up by whom?
the monasteries
Doctors had some tools to treat patients.
This included:
a book which recorded …
leeches to …
aromatic objects which could …
a zodiac chart to …
Doctors had some tools to treat patients.
This included:
a book which recorded possible illnesses.
leeches to remove blood.
aromatic objects which could stop miasma
a zodiac chart to predict future illnesses.
The Poor
Lots of people who were very ill were not treated, because …
The Poor
Lots of people who were very ill were not treated, because people were scared that the disease could spread to other people.
Barber surgeons were people who had access to _____ and did a lot of medical _________.
Barber surgeons did not …
They could cut people’s ____, do _________ and even _______ peoples’ arms and legs.
However, a lot of people died because their wounds were ______ or they …
Barber surgeons were people who had access to razors and did a lot of medical procedures.
Barber surgeons did not get training.
They could cut people’s hair, do bloodletting and even amputate peoples’ arms and legs.
However, a lot of people died because their wounds were infected or they lost too much blood.
The Church only allowed dissections to happen on …
This meant that _____ mistaken beliefs about the anatomy, _____ in the heart and ______ being absorbed not _______ could not be ________.
Here, ______ and ___________ slowed progress.
The Church only allowed dissections to happen on criminals that had been executed.
This meant that Galen’s mistaken beliefs about the anatomy (holes in the heart and blood being absorbed not circulated) could not be corrected.
Here, religion and superstitution slowed progress.
Palliative hospitals
Hospitals were designed to help look after the sick not …
Most _______ in medieval times was palliative (relieve symptoms not cure condition)
For example, _______ in ______ was founded in _____ to look after those with ______ illnesses.
Palliative hospitals
Hospitals were designed to help look after the sick not treat and heal them.
Most medicine in medieval times was palliative (relieve symptoms not cure condition)
For example, Bedlam in London was founded in 1247 to look after those with mental illnesses.
Medical writings
Lots of Ancient Roman and Greek medical ____ were lost when …
Monks tried to ____ and ______ medical texts.
______ (dispute) began to be caused by people _________ the Church’s reliance on ___ books.
For example, a _____ called … was arrested for …
Medical writings
Lots of Ancient Roman and Greek medical texts were lost when the Roman Empire fell.
Monks tried to copy and preserve medical texts.
Dissent began to be caused by people questioning the Church’s reliance on old books.
For example, a monk called Roger Bacon was arrested for challenging the books in the 1200s.
Who funded hospitals?
Who funded hospitals?
1
The Church
2
Aristocratic patrons
Some historians have claimed that the Church’s ___________ of the … funds away from hospitals and health towards wars.
However, the Crusades meant that Western Europeans met ______ doctors.
Some historians have claimed that the Church’s encouragement of the Crusades diverted funds away from hospitals and health towards wars.
However, the Crusades meant that Western Europeans met Muslim doctors.
Who were the two key Muslim doctors?
Who were the two key Muslim doctors?
1
Avicenna
2
Ibn Al-Nafis
________ invented surgical instruments and popularised _________
Abulcasis invented surgical instruments and popularised cauterisation
Muslim hospitals were far more developed than Christian hospitals because they …
They had … for patients with contagious illnesses.
Muslim hospitals were far more developed than Christian hospitals because they actively sought to treat patients.
They had isolation units for patients with contagious illnesses.
Abulcasis, the Islamic physician, wrote a detailed book on:
Abulcasis, the Islamic physician, wrote a detailed book on:
Amputation (cutting off limbs)
Fixing (stitching) wounds
Dislocations
Dental surgery (on teeth)
In the __th century, Albucasis wrote ______, this was a __-volume book on medicine.
In the 11th century, Albucasis wrote Al Tasrif, this was a 30-volume book on medicine.
The spreading of medical knowledge
_____ routes help spread knowledge between _________
The spreading of medical knowledge
trade routes help spread knowledge between civilisation
In the __th century, Avicenna wrote an __________ of Ancient _____ and _______ medicine called ‘______________’.
This was vital in _________ Europe until the __th century after it was translated into _____.
In the 10th century, Avicenna wrote an encyclopaedia of Ancient Greek and Islamic medicine called ‘Canon of Medicine’.
This was vital in Western Europe until the 17th century after it was translated into Latin.
______ claimed that Galen was wrong and that blood …
_____ banned human dissection so _____ could not prove this theory
Al-Nafis claimed that Galen was wrong and that blood passed through the heart via the lungs
Islam banned human dissection so Al-Nafis could not prove this theory
Examples of Natural Anaesthetics used in Medieval Europe:
Examples of Natural Anaesthetics used in Medieval Europe:
1
Hemlock
2
Opium
Lots of surgery in medieval Europe was performed by … who were licensed to cut hair and do _____ surgery.
Lots of surgery in medieval Europe was performed by barber surgeons who were licensed to cut hair and do minor surgery.
In the __th century, … argued that pus was bad for a wound.
He began to use ____ to disinfect wounds.
However, he did not succeed in __________ the ________ idea that ___ was necessary for wounds to ____.
In the 13th century, Hugh of Lucca argued that pus was bad for a wound.
He began to use wine to disinfect wounds.
However, he did not succeed in overturning the dominant idea that pus was necessary for wounds to heal.
John of Ardene
Remembered as one of the most famous surgeons in Medieval England, John of Arderne established the ‘______________’ in ____.
He based his book, _______, on his experiences in the war with ______ and his knowledge of … and …
Ardene created his own forms of _______ from substances such as _____.
John of Ardene
Remembered as one of the most famous surgeons in Medieval England, John of Arderne established the ‘Guild of Surgeons’ in 1368.
He based his book, Practica, on his experiences in the war with France and his knowledge of Ancient Greek and Arab medicine.
Ardene created his own forms of painkillers from substances such as opium.
What were the three main problems of surgery in medieval times?
What were the three main problems of surgery in medieval times?
1 Pain 2 Infection 3 Bloodloss
The four common surgical procedures in medieval Europe were:
The four common surgical procedures in medieval Europe were:
Trepanning
Cauterisation
Amputation
Bloodletting
In medieval times, there was a very _______ understanding of what causes diseases and infections.
Nobody had discovered the link between ____ and ______ and many doctors believed that ___ in wounds helped a patient to recover.
In medieval times, there was a very limited understanding of what causes diseases and infections.
Nobody had discovered the link between dirt and disease and many doctors believed that pus in wounds helped a patient to recover.
11th century
_______
13th century
_______
11th century
Albucasis.
13th century
Hugh of Lucca.
The ______ became so dirty that the “___________” was built to bring … into London.
The unsanitary conditions were partly because of …
People lived ____ together in houses made of ____ and overcrowding meant that …
The city also tried to keep streets ____ and to improve the _____ problems.
The Thames became so dirty that the “Great Conduit” was built to bring drinking water into London.
The unsanitary conditions were partly because of population growth and urbanisation.
People lived close together in houses made of wood and overcrowding meant that disease spread quickly.
The city also tried to keep streets clean and to improve the sewage problems.
Cesspits were used for people to throw their … and ______ into in medieval Europe.
Waste and rubbish were often thrown in _____ and the _____.
Cesspits were used for people to throw their liquid waste and sewage into in medieval Europe.
Waste and rubbish were often thrown in rivers and the street.
List reasons why monasteries had better hygiene levels than towns:
List reasons why monasteries had better hygiene levels than towns:
1 More money 2 Knowledge and understanding 3 Lower population density 4 Authority of the Abbot
______ were built over ______ water so that any sewage could be taken _____
Latrines were built in …
Latrines were built over running water so that any sewage could be taken away
Latrines were built in different buildings to the monasteries
Who controlled the monastery?
Who controlled the monastery?
an Abbot
Monks were literate and could read books which explained the importance of ______.
They understood the importance of ________ water and that a healthy lifestyle rested on a … and ____.
Monks were literate and could read books which explained the importance of hygiene.
They understood the importance of separating water and that a healthy lifestyle rested on a good diet and sleep.
The disease was a mixture of _______ plague (spread by fleas on black rats) and _______ plague (airborne spread by coughing/sneezing).
The plagues could cause death within _ days of the first symptoms.
The disease was a mixture of bubonic plague (spread by fleas on black rats) and pneumonic plague (airborne spread by coughing/sneezing).
The plagues could cause death within 2 days of the first symptoms.
Spread of the Black Death
The disease began in ____ and spread to Europe on ______ ships.
At the time, people thought that the epidemic was caused by ________ things like the position of the ___ (or God’s wrath) or natural reasons such as _____ or …
Spread of the Black Death
The disease began in Asia and spread to Europe on merchant ships.
At the time, people thought that the epidemic was caused by supernatural things like the position of the stars (or God’s wrath) or natural reasons such as miasmas or humour imbalances.
It was actually caused by …
These fleas passed on the disease to ___ who passed it on to _____.
As many people lived _____ to each other, the disease spread quickly.
It was actually caused by bacteria in fleas’ stomachs.
These fleas passed on the disease to rats who passed it on to humans.
As many people lived close to each other, the disease spread quickly.
Peasants moved around to earn … The ____ (year) Ordinance of Labourers tried to stop peasants moving around so much.
Peasants moved around to earn higher wages. The 1349 (year) Ordinance of Labourers tried to stop peasants moving around so much.
Which town did what to stop the spread of the Plague?
Gloucester
…
Winchester
…
Which town did what to stop the spread of the Plague?
Gloucester
Tried to stop anyone outside the town entering.
Winchester
Tried to build cemeteries away from people’s’ homes.
The plague led to ____ shortages (and higher food _____ because of this).
This made life even more difficult for the people who ________ the Black Death.
The plague led to food shortages (and higher food prices because of this).
This made life even more difficult for the people who survived the Black Death.
The worst of the Black Death was over by ____. But plagues continued for _____. The worst example was the _________ of ____.
The worst of the Black Death was over by 1350. But plagues continued for centuries. The worst example was the Great Plague of 1665.
Medieval remedies for the plague:
1 Prayers to ... 2 Using herbs ... 3 \_\_\_\_\_\_, \_\_\_\_\_\_ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ to keep humours in balance 4 \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ those who had become infected
Medieval remedies for the plague:
1
Prayers to appease God
2
Using herbs to keep people safe from miasma
3
Purging, vomiting and bloodletting to keep humours in balance
4
Moving away or avoiding those who had become infected
Impact on peasants
The Black Death killed lots of ______. Peasants asked for ______ wages and ______ around to earn higher wages.
The cost of buying ____ fell because of the lower _________ and this allowed some peasants to buy land.
Impact on peasants
The Black Death killed lots of workers. Peasants asked for higher wages and moved around to earn higher wages.
The cost of buying land fell because of the lower population and this allowed some peasants to buy land.
When did the Renaissance begin?
The Renaissance began in _______, Italy in the late __th century and lasted until the __th century.
When did the Renaissance begin?
The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy in the late 15th century and lasted until the 18th century.
Dissection
The focus on _____ and the increased spread of ____ all encouraged ___________ and the search for _________.
People began to dissect human bodies (corpses) and there were illustrations in medical ______ and ____.
… was a key illustrator of the anatomy
Dissection
The focus on humans and the increased spread of ideas all encouraged experimentation and the search for explanations.
People began to dissect human bodies (corpses) and there were illustrations in medical writings and books.
Leonardo da Vinci was a key illustrator of the anatomy
Vesalius published his … in ____ and then published …. in ____.
On The Fabric of the Human Body had illustrations based on …
Vesalius published his Six Anatomical Pictures in 1538 and then published On The Fabric of the Human Body in 1543.
On The Fabric of the Human Body had illustrations based on Vesalius’ dissections.
Inspiring anatomists
Doctors were encouraged to do dissections themselves after Vesalius’ ____.
Vesalius is credited with inspiring other anatomists, such as ______ and ______.
Inspiring anatomists
Doctors were encouraged to do dissections themselves after Vesalius’ work.
Vesalius is credited with inspiring other anatomists, such as Fabricus and Fallopius.
Vesalius thought that surgery would only get better if people understood …
He used dissections (of executed criminals) to show that …
He faced opposition for … and had to …
Vesalius thought that surgery would only get better if people understood the body and the anatomy better.
He used dissections (of executed criminals) to show that Galen’s understanding of the human body was wrong.
He faced opposition for criticising Galen and had to leave his job at the university.
In which years did Vesalius publish his books?
____
Six Anatomical Pictures.
____
On The Fabric of the Human Body.
In which years did Vesalius publish his books?
1538
Six Anatomical Pictures.
1543
On The Fabric of the Human Body.
Renaissance was a time of rebirth in the ___ and ______.
The printing press (created in ____) was very important to …
The printing press allowed knowledge to be shared with more people very ______.
_____ and _______ could be printed and sent across Europe whereas previously, a lot of information was only told …
Renaissance was a time of rebirth in the arts and science.
The printing press (created in 1440) was very important to share and spread ideas.
The printing press allowed knowledge to be shared with more people very cheaply.
Books and leaflets could be printed and sent across Europe whereas previously, a lot of information was only told person-to-person.
Gunshot wounds
When Paré began work as a battlefield ________, … usually became infected.
Gunshot wounds were usually treated using boiling __ and this would ______ (seal) the _____, but often this …
In ____, Paré ran out of oil on the battlefield. He used … This seemed to work better than oil.
Gunshot wounds
When Paré began work as a battlefield surgeon, gunshot wounds usually became infected.
Gunshot wounds were usually treated using boiling oil and this would cauterise (seal) the wound, but often this did not work.
In 1537, Paré ran out of oil on the battlefield. He used ointment instead of oil. This seemed to work better than oil.
In the __th century, Ambroise Paré made significant advancements in surgical ________.
Paré was a ______ surgeon who then worked as an ____ surgeon.
These experiences helped him to …
In the 16th century, Ambroise Paré made significant advancements in surgical techniques.
Paré was a barber surgeon who then worked as an army surgeon.
These experiences helped him to develop new and better methods.
Amputations
Paré used ligatures to … before amputation instead of _____ them as had been done previously.
This did increase the risk of ______ but was a lot less ______ for patients.
Paré also seems to be the first person to have fitted _______ (artificial) limbs on his patients.
Amputations
Paré used ligatures to tie blood vessels together before amputation instead of burning them as had been done previously.
This did increase the risk of infection but was a lot less painful for patients.
Paré also seems to be the first person to have fitted prosthetic (artificial) limbs on his patients.
Writings and ideas
In ____, Paré’s Works on _____ was published. One individuals’ ideas had a huge impact on ______ in medieval times.
Surgeons across Europe read Works on Surgery and Queen Elizabeth I’s surgeon … promoted Paré’s discoveries.
Paré then became the surgeon to …
Writings and ideas
In 1575, Paré’s Works on Surgery was published. One individuals’ ideas had a huge impact on surgery in medieval times.
Surgeons across Europe read Works on Surgery and Queen Elizabeth I’s surgeon William Clowes promoted Paré’s discoveries.
Paré then became the surgeon to four French Kings.
