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Neurology > Headaches > Flashcards

Headaches Flashcards

1
Q

What most commonly causes subdural haematomas?

A

Bleed from subdural bridging veins

  • forms a crescent shape on scans
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2
Q

When is a increase in ICP considered severe?

A

40mmHg

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3
Q

What most commonly causes subdural haematomas?

A

Bleed from subdural bridging veins

  • forms a crescent shape on scans
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4
Q

What would a lesion in the posterior parietal lobe cause?

A

Optic ataxia: inability to move hand to a specific object using vision

Balint’s syndrome

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5
Q

What would a lesion in the inferior temporal cortex result in?

A

Visual agnosia: when a person can see but cant interpret the information

e.g. the man who mistook his wife for a hat

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6
Q

What should ICP be?

A

10mmHg

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7
Q

What is the tentorium?

A

Fold of dura mater that forms a partition between the cerebrum and cerebellum

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8
Q

What would cause a diffuse brain injury?

A

Hypoxia, meningitis

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9
Q

What occurs in response to an increase in ICP?

A

CPP decreases

BP increases and vessels dilate

ICP increases

CPP further decreases

*ultimately resulting in ischemia and infarction
*increased BP also causes bleeds to bleed more

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10
Q

What is uncal herniation?

A

Innermost part of temporal lobe can be moved towards the tentorium and put pressure on the brainstem

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11
Q

Which cranial nerve is affected by uncal herniation?

A

CN3 – causes pupillary dilation, pupil doesn’t react to light

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12
Q

Discuss types of brain herniation

A

Supratentorial:
1. uncal: temporal lobe

  1. central: diencephalon slips under tentorium
  2. cingulate/ subfalcine: cingulate gyrus squeezed to other side of brain
  3. transcalvarial: AKA external herniation

Infratentorial:
1. upward herniation: cerebellum displaced

  1. tonsillar: cerebellar tonsils slip down towards foramen magnum
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13
Q

Discuss uncal herniation

A
  • Causes down and out eyes and pupil dilation
  • Can compress the posterior cerebral artery and cause an ishaemic stroke in occipital lobe
  • Can break basilar arteries and lead to Duret’s haemorrhages – small linear areas of bleeding in brainstem
  • Causes ipsilateral weakness due to indentation on the cerebral peduncle caused by herniation on the opposite side = Kernohan’s notch
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14
Q

What is gaze palsy?

A

Eyes shift to side of lesion

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15
Q

Discuss staging of brain tumours

A

Grade 1: lesion with low proliferative potential, curative with surgical resection

Grade 2: Atypical cells, recur more frequently than grade 1, can progress to higher grades

Grade 3: evidence of malignancy, anaplastic cells, treated with aggressive chemo/radio

Grade 4: necrotic, mitotically active, neovascular, aggressive treatment, STUPP protocol (temozolomide chemotherapy + radiotherapy)

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16
Q

What is the STUPP protocol?

A

Temozolomide (alkyating agent) + radiotherapy

Used for glioblastoma

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17
Q

Discuss primary and secondary headaches

A

Primary = in the absence of significant pathology

Secondary = symptom of underlying disease e.g. infection, tumours, raised ICP

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18
Q

What should be examined when discussing headaches?

A
  • Vital signs
  • Fundoscopy
  • Cranial and PNS examination
  • Extracranial structures: neck and temporal arteries
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19
Q

Red flags of headaches

A
  • New, severe, unexpected
  • Reaching maximum intensiity within 5 mins- think vasculopathy e.g. bleed/ dissection
  • Progressive/ persistent: possible mass lesion
  • Associated features e.g. fever, seizure, neck pain, photophobia
  • Aura + weakness lasting 1hr+
  • Current pregnancy: pre-eclampsia?
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20
Q

Headaches that gets worse on standing

A

CSF leak - low pressure headache

Causes: spontaneous, trauma, iatrogenic

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21
Q

Headache worse on lying down?

A

Consider space occupying lesion

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22
Q

Headache + papilloedema

A

Space occupying lesion, space occupying lesion

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23
Q

Migraine mimics

A

Something that looks like a migraine but isn’t

  • Trigeminal autonomic cephaliga e.g. cluster headaches: these cause people to want to move around rather than stay still
  • Acute glaucoma: painful, tender, firm eye + visual loss
  • Carotid artery dissection: neck pain + Horner’s
  • Structural lesion: early morning headache, vomiting without nausea
  • Meningitis: systemic signs and symptoms
  • Giant cell arteritis: Age 50+, scalp tenderness, jaw claudication, systemic symptoms
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24
Q

Migraine chameleons

A

Something that looks like a migraine but isn’t

  • TIA
  • Stroke: motor loss, dysphasia
  • Epilespy
  • Vestibular disorders e.g. vertigo
  • MS: intermittent sensory disturbance
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25
Q

Key difference between migrain and cluster headache?

A

Cluster - patient wants to keep moving, restless

Migraine - wants to stay still in dark room

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26
Q

Epidemiology of migraine

A

15-20% women

5% men

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27
Q

Aetiology of migraines

A
  • Strong familial link
  • Triggers: chocolate, cheese, wine

* Query is whether the foods cause migraine or whether they are part of the craving as part of the prodrome *

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28
Q

What causes the aura in migraine?

A

Wave of cortical spreading depression, decreased neuronal function

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29
Q

Clinical features of migraine

A
  • Throbbing or pulsatile headache
  • Develops over minutes to hours
  • Light sensitivity, nausea and vomiting
  • Pain aggravated by movement
  • Prodrome: visual disturbance, sleepiness, food cravings, altered mood
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30
Q

What % of migraines occur without aura?

A

80%

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31
Q

Positive and negative symptoms of aura

A

Positive: zigzag lines, pins and needles

Negative: blind spots, numbness

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32
Q

Diagnosing migraine

A

3+ of the following:

  • Pulsatile headache
  • 4-74hr duration
  • Unilateral
  • N&V
  • Disabling intensity
  • FHx
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33
Q

Define chronic migraine

A

>15 days/month for 3 months

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34
Q

When to refer a patient with migraines

A

Any red flags

Status migrainosus

Treatment in primary care not working **important to consider medication overuse headaches first **

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35
Q

Investigations for migraine

A

Clinical diagnosis

MRI + lumbar puncture needed if:

  • >50yrs and new headache
  • Fever
  • Thunderclap headache
  • Neurological deficit
  • New congitive dysfunction
  • Drowsiness
  • Change from normal headache
  • Compromised immune system
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36
Q

Initial management of migraines

A

Lifestyle: Avoid triggers, stress management, sleep hygeine, hydration

Address comorbidities: sleep apnoea, depression, anxiety

Medication overuse: restrict medication to 2 days/ week

COCP: stop if migraines with aura

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37
Q

Acute treatment of migraine

A

1st: Simple analgesia: NSAIDs, paraceptamol, aspirin
2nd: Triptan ± NSAID e.g. sumitriptan - consider intranasal or subcut if patient vomits with migraines

Do not offer opioids or ergots

Review after 2-8 weeks

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38
Q

Preventative therapy for migraines

A

Consider if: impact on QoL and daily function e.g. 1+ per week, prologed despite treatment, acute treatment doesn’t work

Medication choice: daily propranolol, amitriptyline

*Consider treatment failed if highest dose of prophylaxis does not control migraines after 3 months - then refer to neurology

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39
Q

Preventing period-related migraine

A

Frovitriptan on days migraine is expected

Zolmitriptan

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40
Q

What is status migrainosus?

A

Attack lasting >3 days

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41
Q

Discuss tension-type headaches

A

Typical presentation: bilateral pressing or tightening, non-pulsating pain

  • Mins-days
  • No nausea
  • Photophobia and phonphobia can occur
  • Pericranial tenderness

‘A band of pain or pressure around the forehead with no neurological features’

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42
Q

Epidemiology of tension-type headaches

A
  • Affects up to 80% population
  • Rarely severe: most manage at home
  • Affects women and young more than men and older
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43
Q

Aetiology of tension-type headaches

A
  • Cause poorly understood
  • stress, inappropriate eye prescription, contracted cranial muscles
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44
Q

What are the clinical features of tension type headaches?

A

Pain around forehead but no N&V or autonomic symptoms

3 types:

  1. Infrequent episodic: <1 day per month
  2. Frequent episodic: 1-14 days per month for 3+ months (+ either photophobia OR phonophobia or neither but not both)
  3. Chronic: 15+ days per month (+ either photophobia OR phonophobia or neither but not both) - patients with chronic TTH may also have N&V
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45
Q

Management of tension-type headaches

A

Red flags? Refer to secondary care

Episodic TTH: simple analgesia, identify comorbidities e.g. stress/ sleep disorders

Chronic TTH: consider preventative treatment e.g. 10 sessions of accupuncture, low dose amitriptyline

**Be aware of medication-overuse headaches**

**Do not offer opiods, if you think about offering opiods reconsider diagnosis**

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46
Q

Mechanism of amitriptyline

A

Tricyclic antidepressant - works as a SNRI

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47
Q

How do triptans work?

A

Agonists of 5-HT1B and 5HT1D receptors on blood vessels - causing vasoconstriction

Reduces release of nociceptive neuropeptides e.g. substance P

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48
Q

Discuss medication overuse headache

A

Headache resulting in overuse of medication e.g. ergotamines, triptansopioids, NSAIDs, paracetamol

  • Headache should resolve after stopping medication
  • non-steroidals and paracetamol must be taken on 15+ days per month to be considered overuse
  • Opioids, triptans and ergotamine must be taken on 10+ days a month to be considered overuse
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49
Q

Management of medication overuse headaches

A
  • Explain diagnosis and that withdrawal of over-used drug is mainstay of treatment
  • Consider whether drug can be stopped abruptly
  • Symptoms may get worse before getting better
  • Review after 4-8 weeks from withdrawing medication
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50
Q

Discuss cluster headaches

A
  • One of the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias
  • Referred to as suicidal headaches
  • Severe, unilateral periorbital pain associated with ipsilateral cranial autonomic symptoms e.g. conjunctival injection (red eye), lacrimation and eyelid oedema
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51
Q

Epidemiology of cluster headaches

A

15 per 100,000

Male predominance

Increased prevalence in close family member

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52
Q

Aetiology of cluster headache

A
  • Facial pain due to activation of opthalmic branch of trigeminal nerve
  • Autonomic symptoms due to activation of parasympathetic aspect of facial nerve

*Overall cause unknown*

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53
Q

Clinical features of cluster headache

A
  • Hallmark is timing: occur in clusters of daily headaches for weeks or months with periods of remission
  • Severe, unilateral, periorbital pain + eye symptoms
  • Pain: sharp, burning, pulsating, pressure
  • Attacks last 15-180 mins
  • Patient cannot lie still, agitated, pacing
  • Timing can often be predicted and triggers may be found e.g. alcohol, physical exertion
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54
Q

International classification of headache disorders - cluster headache diagnostic criteria

A

5+ attacks of severe-very severe unilateral orbital/ temporal pain lasting 15-180mins

+ at least one of:

  • Conjunctival injection, lacrimation, nasal congestion, rhinorrhoea, eyelid oedema, forehead/ facial swelling/ flushing, meiosis/ ptosis, restlessness/ agitation

Episodic: 80-90% cases, pain free for at least 1 month between attacks

Chronic: 10-20% cases, 12months with remission periods <1 month

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55
Q

Management of cluster headaches

A
  • Exclude red flags

Lifestyle: advise re triggers, adress sleep disorders, depression etc

Acute: Sumitriptan/ zolmitriptan, 100% oxygen 12-15L through non-rebreathe mask (home oxygen can be provided)

Refer: first clsuter headache (diagnosis is made by specialist), patients often have MRI scans done, if patients develop symptoms that may suggest secondary cause, if patient is pregnant

Prevention: verapamil

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56
Q

What is giant cell arteritis?

A

AKA temporal arteritis because it most commony affects temporal artery

  • Systemic vasculitis that can cause blindness - inflammation in the walls of medium and large arteries
  • Uncommon
  • Causes a serious headache
57
Q

Epidemiology of giant cell arteritis

A

5-18 per 100,000 over 55yrs

  • very uncommon in patients <55

4x women than men

58
Q

Aetiology of giant cell arteritis

A

Granulomatous inflammation in walls of medium-large vessels especially superficial temporal artery

  • Vasculitic lesions consist of cellular infiltrate that forms giant cells
  • B cells direct antibodies to combat the vascular proteins causing inflammation in the vessels leading to narrowing and pain
59
Q

Clinical features of giant cell arteritis

A
  • 75% have a headache
  • 60% have polymyalgia rheumatica (pain, stiffness and inflammation of muscles around neck and shoulders)
  • Fever
  • Scalp tenderness, overlying skin can be red
  • Loss of pulsation over temporal artery
  • Jaw claudication
  • Visual loss/ double vision
60
Q

How is giant cell arteritis diagnosed?

A
  • FBC: low Hb, raised platelets
  • ESR and CRP are raised in most cases (a normal level does not exclude GCA)
  • Temporal artery biopsy needed for definitive diagnosis - shows intimal proliferation and narrowing of lumen + giant cells
61
Q

Questions to ask if suspecting giant cell arteritis

A

SOCRATES

  • Headache red flags
  • Change in vision
  • Scalp pain/ tenderness e.g. when head on pillow or combing hair
  • Jaw/ tongue pain
  • Polymyalgia rheumatica questions e.g. trouble turning in bed or when lifting arms
  • Systemic: fever, night sweats, weight loss, anorexia
  • Arm pains: limb claudication
  • Chest pain
62
Q

What will a FBC show in giant cell arteritis?

A

Low Hb (normocytic anaemia) + raised platelets

63
Q

How is giant cell arteritis initially managed?

A

Medical emergency - treat to prevent vision loss

  • Initial management is glucocorticoids - high dose prednisolone
  • If patient has visual changes refer for urgen assessment by opthalmologists - they may advise giving pred in mean time
  • If no visual loss, refer via urgent GCA pathway for urgent assessment with rheumatology
  • Arrange for bloods
64
Q

Discuss ergotamine medication for headaches

A

Used for cluster headaches only

Causes vasoconstriction of intracranial blood vessels by acting on 5-HT1D receptors

Used to be frequently used for migraine however this is no longer the case – known to cause medication overuse headache

65
Q

Discuss management of giant cell arteritis once diagnosed

A
  • Managed in secondary care
  • Treatment 1-2yrs with glucocorticoids
  • To avoid glucocorticoid toxicity methotrexate or tocilizumab may be given
  • Patient reviewed every 2-8 weeks for 6 months, then every 12 weeks for 6 months then every 12-24 weeks for 12 months
  • Glucocorticoid dose tapered when patient in remission but relapse is common
66
Q

How is a giant cell arteritis relapse managed?

A

This is defined as a return of symptoms regardless of whether inflammatory markers are raised

  • Visual disturbance: refer for urgent assessment
  • Be aware of the fact that GCA can affect aorta and proximal branches so look out for limb claudication, abdo pain, back pain
67
Q

Discuss headaches associated with raised ICP

A

Known as high pressure headaches (normal ICP is 7-15mmHg)

Pain occurs as excess CSF leads to stretching of meninges and activates pain-sensitive structures e.g. dura

Symptoms: headache, vomiting, transient visual changes, increased on coughing or straining, worse lying down

68
Q

Causes of a raised ICP

A
  • Mass effect: tumour
  • Brain ischaemia
  • Obstruction to CSF flow
  • Bleed
  • Infection
  • Idiopathic
69
Q

Clinical features of a raised ICP

A

Dull, generalised headache

Worsened by anything that increases ICP e.g. coughing, lying down, sneezing, bening forwards

Vomiting, papilloedema, visual changes

70
Q

What is the Monroe-Kellie hypothesis?

A

Pressure-volume relationship between ICP, volume of CSF, blood, brain tissue and cerebral perfusion pressure

Cranial compartment is inelastic and the volume is fixed

  • The fluids create an equilibrium: increase in one of the fluids leads to a decrease in another

Cerebral perfusion pressure = pressure of blood flowing to brain

CPP = MAP - ICP (therefore raised ICP leads to less blood reaching brain)

71
Q

Management of raised ICP

A
  • Treat the cause
  • Lumbar puncture, ventricular drain, shunt
  • If idiopathic: weight loss and acetazolamide
72
Q

What causes subarachnoid haemorrhages?

A

Berry aneurysms (think spider body)

73
Q

Presentation of subarachnoid haemorrhage

A
  • Most commonly due to head trauma or berry aneurysm
  • Peak incidence 50yrs
  • Thunderclap headache (worst they’ve ever had)
  • Photophobia, vomiting, loss of consciousness, deafness
  • Neck stiffness
  • Seizures
  • Patients report prodromal symptoms: a ‘warning leak’ transient diplopia, dueen severe headache
74
Q

Risk factors for subarachnoid haemorrhage

A
  • HTN
  • Smoking
  • Family hx
  • Autosomal dominant PKD
  • Connective tissue disorders
75
Q

Where do the majority of berry aneurysms occur?

A

95-90% in anterior circulation: mainly anterior communicating-ACA junction

76
Q

Investigations for subarachnoid haemorrhage

A

Emergency non-contrast CT: order thin slices to avoid missing small collections of blood - sensitivity almost 100% within 6hrs of bleed - shows hyperdensity in subarachnoid space

  • Patients can be agitated and need anesthetising to be scanned

U&E: hyponatremia occurs in 50% and is associated with vasospasm following SAH

  • Clotting profile
  • Blood glucose: hyperglycamia occurs in 1/3
  • CT angio if CT negative but suspicion high
77
Q

What is xanthochromia?

A

Yellowish discolouration of CSF occuring due to breakdown of RBCs following subarachnod haemorrhage

*This won’t be apparent straight away as it takes time for RBCs to breakdown)

78
Q

How is a subarachnoid haemorrhage initially managed?

A
  • ABC
  • Isotonic saline for fluid resus
  • As soon as diagnosis confirmed refer to neurosurgeons and give nimodipine (combats vasospams following SAH)
  • Observe closely
  • Consider seziure prophylaxis
  • Give stool softener and anti-emetic after surgery as any valsalva manouvre can cause increased ICP and re-bleed
79
Q

Surgical management of subarachnoid haemorrhage

A
  • Surgical clipping: treatment of choice, mor invasive than coiling
  • Endovascular coiling: platnum coils placed into aneurysm, causes thrombotic occlusion (less invasive but higher risk of re-bleed)
80
Q

What is a subdural haematoma?

A

Collection of blood following a bleed into the space between the dura and arachnoid mater

81
Q

Whick vessels are responsible for a subdural haematoma?

A

Bridging cortical veins that empty into the dural venous sinuses

Bridging veins = veins that transverse the dura mater and empty into the dural venous sinuses (venous drainage of the brain)

82
Q

Aetiology of subdural haematomas

A

Chronic and acute SDH are mainly caused by trauma

  • Seen in eldelry patients who have had a fall - age related brain atrophy causes veins to be more stretched and prone to bleeding
83
Q

Pathophysiology of acute subdural haematomas

A

Usually due to shear forces disrupting bridging cortical veins

  • Bleeding causes intracranial pressure to rise, cerebral perfusion pressure and cerebral blood flow decreases
  • Ischaemic injury occurs
84
Q

Aetiology/ pathophysiology of chronic subdural haematoma

A

Seen in alcohol abusers (causes brain atrophy) or those who are taking anti-coagulants or have a coagulopathy

Blood collects over >21 days and becomes symptomatic when underlying brain tissue is compressed

85
Q

Presentation of a chronic subdural haematoma

A

Patients often have no trauma or present weeks after a fall/ trauma with vague symptoms of weakness/ confusion/ drowsiness

86
Q

Classification of subdural haematoma based on timing

A

Acute: <3 days old (diffusely hyperdense)

Subacute: 3-21 days old (heterogenously hyperdense/isodense)

Chronic: >21 days (diffusely hypodense)

Acute on chronic: areas of hypodensity + hyperdensity

87
Q

Risk factors for subdural haematoma

A
  • Recent trauma
  • Coagulopathy
  • Anticoagulant medication
  • 65+
  • Chronic alcohol use
88
Q

Key diagnostic features of subdural haematoma

A

Risk factors, signs of trauma on face, lacerations/ bruising on head and neck, headache (due to raised ICP), unequal pupils size (anisocoria) (due to herniation), confusion, diminished verbal response

89
Q

Initial investigations for subdural haematoma

A

Bloods: coagulation profile, FBC

Non-contrast CT

Subdural fluid collection forms a crescent shape and may cause effacement of underlying sulci

90
Q

Management of subdural haematoma

A

Acute: reverse anti-coagulation, craniotomy and drainage of haematoma

Chronic: can be left to spontaneoulsy recover if causing no problems, surgical manegement to remove blood either burr holes and then wash the blood out or craniotomy to remove the haematoma

91
Q

What causes low-pressure headaches?

A

Uncommon, caused by general tears with CSF leakage, trauma, lumbar puncture or spinal anaesthetic

92
Q

Characteristics of low-pressure headaches

A

Dull, throbbing headache made worse by standing and improved by lying down

93
Q

Managamenet of low-pressure headaches

A

Conservative: bed rest, increased fluid intake, caffeine (causes vasoconstriction)

Epidural blood patch: blood from patient used to ‘plug’ hole in dura

94
Q

What is meningitis?

A

Inflammation of the meninges

***Not inflammation of the brain tissue - this is encephalitis***

95
Q

Which meningeal layers are most commonly affected by meningitis?

A

Arachnoid and pia mater (aka the leptomeninges)

96
Q

How much CSF do we produce a day?

A

500mL, 350mL is reabsorbed into blood so we have 150mL of CSF circulating at any one time

97
Q

Where is CSF found?

A

Between pia and arachnoid mater (subarachnoid space)

Normal to find a small amount of WBCs, proteins and glucose in the CSF

Mainly lymphocytes in the CSF with very few polymorphonuclear WBCs (e.g. neutrophils)

98
Q

What can cause inflammation of the meninges?

A
  • Autoimmune disease e.g. lupus
  • Reaction to medication
  • Infection (the most common across all age groups)
99
Q

Routes of infection in meningitis

A
  • Direct spread: trauma or URTI allowing infection into CSF via the skull or spinal column
  • Haematogenous spread: pathogen enters blood and tracks to CSF
100
Q

Age-related causes of bacterial meningitis

A

Epidemics (18-50yrs): n.meningitidis (meningococcus meningitis)

Head trauma: strep.pneumoniae

Immunocompromised: L.monocytogenes

<3 months: group B strep

3 months-18yrs: n.meningitidis

>50yrs: strep.pneumoniae

101
Q

Which is the most aggressive and serious form of meningitis?

A

Bacterial

  • Requires early and aggressive treatment
102
Q

Epidemiology of bacterial meningitis

A

4/100,000 in UK per year

Peaks: infants and adolescents

103
Q

Vaccinations against bacterial meningitis

A

Pneumococcal: protection against serious infections caused by pneumococcal bacteria, including meningitis

Hib/ Men C: protection against a type of bacteria called meningococcal group C bacteria, which can cause meningitis

Meningitis ACWY: given to freshers, protection against 4 types of bacteria that can cause meningitis: meningococcal groups A, C, W and Y.

104
Q

Pathogenesis of bacterial meningitis

A

H.influenzae, strep.pneumoniae, n.meningitidis all colonise nasal and skull cavities

  • Immunodeficiency or breach of structural defence allows bacteria into intracranial compartments
  • Overtime inflammatory response occurs and polymorphonuclear cells enter CSF
  • The inflammation leads to the symptoms of meningitis
105
Q

CSF in meningitis

A

>5 WBCs in 1uL of CSF usually indicates meningitis

  • The amount of WBCs in CSF indicates which type of infection is causing the meningitis:

Bacterial meningitis CSF:

  • 1000s WBCs (mainly polymorphonuclear e.g. neutrophils)
  • Very high opening pressure, very high protein, high lactate, <50% CSF:serum glucose ratio (bacteria use the glucose so it decreases in the CSF)

Viral meningitis CSF:

  • 100s WBCs (mainly mononuclear)
  • Mildly increased opening pressure, mildy raised protein, >50% CSF:serum glucose, normal lactate
106
Q

What would you expect following CSF analysis of a patient with bacterial meningitis?

A

Very high opening pressure (>25cm H2O)

1000s of polymorphonuclear WBCs

High lactate

Very high protein levels

107
Q

What is CSF opening pressure?

A

Pressure of CSF detected just after needle placed in spainal canal

Indicates intracranial pressure

108
Q

Why does opening pressure of CSF increase in meningitis?

A

Presence of large numbers of WBCs - causes pressure increase

109
Q

Clinical features of bacterial meningitis

A
  • Fever
  • Meningism triad (neck stiffness, photophobia, headache)
  • Purpuric, non-blanching rash: suggests meningococcal septicaemia (the rash occurs because a systemic inflammatory response occurs and causes disseminated intravascular coagulopathy which causes vasodilation, capillary leakage and haemorrhaging into skin)
  • Neurological complications:
  • increased ICP headache, N&V
  • Seizures (20%)
  • Focal neuro deficits (10%)
110
Q

What is meningococcal disease?

A

Infections caused by the bacteria n.meningitidis

Most commonly causes:

  • Meningococcal meningitis
  • Meningococcal septicaemia
111
Q

Diagnosis of bacterial meningitis

A

Clinical hx, presentation and examination form initial diagnostic approach

  • If bacterial meningitis is suspected, immediately commence antibiotics
  • Definitive diagnosis made when microbial organism is found in CSF
112
Q

When is a lumbar puncture contraindicated in meningitis?

A

Signs of raised ICP: GCS score <13, focal neurological signs, abnormal posturing, following seizure if not stable, dolls eye movements - this is because it could cause a drop in ICP and herniation

If rash suspicious of meningococcal septicaemia - you don’t want to introduce the infection into the CNS

Bradycardia w/ HTN, immunocompromised, systemic shock, coagulopathy, respiratory failure

113
Q

Investigations for bacterial meningitis

A

Bloods: CRP, PCR of blood to identify causative organism

Lumbar puncture (unless contraindicated)

CSF: electrophoresis showing presence of oligoclonal bands (bands of immunoglobulins seen when analysing CSF) - presence of these in the CSF indicates CNS inflammation

Kernig’s sign: patient lies on back, flexes hip to 90o - leg straightened at knee causes back pain - pain occurs as lowering of leg stretches meninges and if they are inflamed it exacerbates pain

114
Q

Management of bacterial meningitis out of hospital

A

Bottom line: don’t wait to give antibiotics if you suspect bacterial meningitis

If suspecting bacterial meningitis + non-blanching rah: give IV/ IM benzylpenicillin asap in part of limb that is still warm

If suspecting bacterial meningitis without non-blanching rash don’t give antibiotics unless patient will not reach hopsital urgently

115
Q

Antibioitc management of bacterial meningitis in hopsital

A

If suspecting bacterial meningitis, give broad spectrum antibiotics immediately - don’t wait for results of investigations

  • Usually a 3rd generation cephalosporin ceftriaxone
  • Once species identified antibiotics adjusted
  • IV antibiotics for minimum of 2 weeks
116
Q

Additional treatment of bacterial meningitis

A

Acyclovir if suspecting encephalitis

Steroids if CSF evidently infected e.g. purulent/ high WBCs

Treat precipitating factor e.g. trauma

Supportive treatment for shock and raised ICP

Complication management e.g. drain abscess

117
Q

Management of close contacts of patient with bacterial meningitis

A

Consult regional health protection unit

  • Identify contacts who are at raisk and prescribe/ supply prophylactic treatment

**Bacterial meningitis and meningococcal disease are notifiable diseases

118
Q

Which is more common, bacterial or viral menigitis?

A

Viral

Usually self-limiting and patients recover without major neurological complications

119
Q

Epidemiology of viral meningitis

A

3000 cases reported each year but true incidence thought to be much higher

120
Q

Most common causes of viral meningitis

A

Coxsackievirus B, herpes simples type II

**In most cases no organism is found**

121
Q

Pathogenesis of viral meningit

A

Virus enters through skin lesion, GI, respiratory or urinogenital tract and then replicated locally

It then enters CNS via blood stream or by tracking along cranial/ peripheral nerve

122
Q

Clinical features of viral meningitis

A

Similar presentation to bacterial meningitis but less severe

  • Seizures, focal neurological deficits

Profound changes in consciousness are rare in viral meningitis (if present, suspect encephalitis)

123
Q

Investigations for viral meningitis

A
  • Difficult to culture viruses from CSF
  • Often a clinical diagnosis as difficult to identify organism
  • Viral meningitis can be distinguished from bacterial via CSF analysis (viral = lower WBCs in 100s, normal lactate, mild protein increase)
124
Q

Management of viral meningitis

A
  • Benign, self limiting condition
  • If a headache perists + visual impairment there may be impaired CSF reabsorption following inflammation - this can lead to raised ICP
  • CSF diversion procedures can be carried out to relieve the ICP
125
Q

What is encephalitis?

A

Inflammation of the neuronal and glial substance of the brain (the brain parenchyma)

  • Can be caused by infectious agents or by an autoimmune process
126
Q

Most common cause of viral encephalitis

A

HSV1 - early treatment with aciclovir reduces from 70% to 20-30%

127
Q

Epidemiology of encephalitis

A

1 in 100,000 annually

128
Q

Aetiology of encephalitis

A

Most commonly identified cause is HSV1 - >90% cases

Immunocompromised patients: CMV, HIV, JC viruses

129
Q

Pathogenesis of encephalitis

A
  • Organism enters body via inhalation/ other
  • Gains access to CNA via olfactory mucosa and cranial nerves leading to diffuse inflammation in basal frontal and medial temporal lobes
130
Q

Clinical features of encephalitis

A
  • Headache, fever, seizures, focal neurological deficits, significant mental status deterioration, photophobia, phonophobia, nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness)

There may be a prodrome but HSV1 encephalitis often doesn’t have a prodrome

131
Q

Diagnosis of encephalitis

A

Evidence of inflammation following CSF analysis + clinical ± radiological evidence of focal brain involvement

CSF in viral encephalitis is similar to that of viral meningitis

90% patients have an abnormal brain MRI - findings depend on cause but often shows hyperdensity with T2/ FLAIR sequences

132
Q

Management of encephalitis

A

Without treatment HSV encephalitis has a high morbidity and mortality so most clinicians start acyclovir in patients presenting with features suggestive of encephalitis

  • IV acyclovir given for a minimum of 2 weeks
  • If caused by autoimmune condition, responds to IV steroids
133
Q

Prognosis of encephalitis

A

Worst outcome with HSV1 - untreated has a 70% mortality and most patients are left with persistent neurological deficits

134
Q

What is posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome?

A

Swelling of caudal part of brain

Characterised by headache, seizures, altered mental status and visual loss

Imaging shows white matter vasogenic oedema affecting the occipital and posterior parietal lobes only

Causes: HTN, kidney disease, infection, pre-eclampsia

135
Q

Patient with a thunderclap headache but they have a negative CT head - what’s next?

A

The negative CT head does not exclude subarachnoid - they need a lumbar puncture after 12hrs to look for evidence of blood in the CSF

136
Q

Patient presents weeks after what you think sounds like a subarachnoid haemorrhage - what di we do?

A

Gradient echo - MRI sequence

Angiogram

137
Q

How common is low pressure headache after lumbar puncture?

A

3/10 people will experience this

138
Q

Most common complication of meningitis?

A

Sensorineural hearing loss

Neurology (23 decks)

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