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1
Q

name 6 usability goals

A

effective to use, efficient to use, safe to use, have good utility, easy to learn, easy to remember

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2
Q

Usability Goal: effective to use

A

 can users use the system to do the work they need to do?
 E.g. offering means of entering text, saving information…

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3
Q

Usability goal: efficient to use

A

 can experienced users be productive using the system?
 E.g. keyboard shortcuts, saving information for later

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4
Q

usability goal: safe to use

A

 what kind of errors can users make and how can they recover from/prevent the mistake?
 E.g. prevent to turn the temperature in the shower to hot

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5
Q

usability goal - good utility

A

 does the system provide all the functionality the users need/has all features?

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6
Q

usability goal - easy to learn

A

 can users figure out what to do by exploring the interface?
 e.g. familiar and natural interfaces, learning without manual

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7
Q

usability goal - easy to remember

A

 what kind of support does the system have for remembering how to do tasks (esp. infrequent tasks)?
 e.g. GUIs with appropriate menus and icons

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8
Q

7 foundations of interaction design

A

affordance, visibility, feedback, mapping, constraints, consistency, metaphors

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9
Q

affordance

A

 property of an object to perform an action; “is for”
 actions that the design of an object suggests to users
 real a.: e.g. grasping, pulling;
 perceived a.: scrollbars
 e.g. chair (sitting, leaning, moving it)

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10
Q

visibility

A

 users should always be aware of what is going on
 make functionality visible
 stove: displays if it is on/off

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11
Q

feedback

A

 information for the users about the current system state: what has been done and current interaction possibilities
 sound, highlight, animation, haptic
 subtle, more noticeable
 e.g. icons (e.g. recycler, speaker icon)

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12
Q

mapping

A

 relationship bw. controls and actions they trigger
 spatial: arrange controls in the same way their real-world counterparts are arranged, e.g. room lamps: map left button to the left lamp, right button to the right lamp
 physical: mapping follows physical real-world behavior, e.g. water bucket is being filled with water -> water level is rising, there is more water
 cultural standards: mapping follows cultural conventions (left to right)
 perception: the input device looks like the actual thing itself (e.g. smart sofa control)

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13
Q

constraints

A

 restricts actions to prevent users from selecting incorrect options
 avoid usage errors
 Physical c.: e.g. selection instead of mistyping, automatic correction, prevent illegal input; usb

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14
Q

consistency

A

 similar operations should use similar elements for similar tasks
 Internal c.: design operations to behave the same within an application
 External c.: design operations to behave the same across applications; calculator designs
 E.g. similar commands, fonts, layout, color, flow

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15
Q

metaphors

A

 interface is designed to be similar to something the user is already familiar with
 e.g. virtual address books & calculators are inspired by physical ones

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16
Q

4 main interaction types/modes

A

instructing, conversing, manipulating, exploring

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17
Q

instructing

A

 the user instructs the system what to do using keyboards and selecting options via menus
 Good for quick and efficient interaction and repetitive actions
 E.g. MS word, vending machines

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18
Q

conversing

A

 Underlying model of talking to humans (voice recognition), interacting with the system as if having a conversation
 Good for hands-free interactions
 E.g. Siri, Alexa

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19
Q

manipulating

A

 interacting with virtual objects (Dragging, selecting, opening, closing…)
 Good for doing many types of tasks
 E.g. mouse, touchscreen…

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20
Q

exploring

A

 Finding out and learning things
 Good for searching and getting large amounts of information
 E.g. google pages

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21
Q

4 approaches to user interface design (UID)

A

user-centered design, activity centered design, system design, genius design

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22
Q

user-centered design

A

 Most successful approach
 focus is on the user
 designer translates the users’ needs into a design solution
 3 principles:
* Early focus on users & tasks
* Empirical measurement
* Iterative design

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23
Q

user-centered design - contextual design

A

4 main principles:
* Context: interviews, observations
* Partnership: user and developer collaborate
* Interpretation: observations interpreted by user and developer together
* Focus: project focus to understand what to look for

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24
Q

user-centered design - participatory design

A
  • Selected users are actively participating in the design process
  • At least one future user is part of the development team
  • Democratic
  • Time-consuming
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activity-centered design
 Focus on the activities  Behavior of users rather than their goals is important
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system design
 Holistic approach focusing on the entire system (e.g. people, objects, computers, devices…)
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genius design
 Relies on the experience and creative talent of the designer  Users are not involved during the process
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requirements iterative process
Requirements – Design – Prototyping – Evaluation
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types of requirements
 Functional (what should the system do?)  Non-functional (response time, date of delivery)  Users (who? Characteristics, system use)  Data (what data need to be stored? How?)  Environment / context of use (physical, social, organizational, technical)
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categories of users
 Primary (frequent, hands-on)  Secondary (occasional, via someone else)  Tertiary (affected by introduction or influencing the purchase)
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stakeholder
 Everybody who is affected by or has an influence on the system  more people than we normally thing of as users  Not necessary to involve all in a user-centered process  But be aware of their wider impact
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personas
 Help understand who the users are  realistic description of a fictional person  Not real people, but with real characteristics (skills, attitudes, tasks, environment)
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why task analysis?
* The characteristics and capabilities of the users * What the users are trying to achieve * How they achieve it currently * Whether they would achieve their goals more effectively
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how task analysis
* Gather data * Analyze data * model requirements
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techniques for understanding tasks
- scenarios - use case diagram - object/operation analysis - hierarchical task analysis (HTA)
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scenarios
* Informal narrative story * Personal, not generalizable * Focus on activities
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use case diagram
* possible actions bw. an actor and a system to achieve a goal * Focus on user-system interaction * Essential use cases: high level of abstraction
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HTA
* Starting point: user goal * Main tasks to achieve the goal are identified * Tasks are subdivided into subtasks
40
attentive perception
 Visual scanning  Sequentially identify objects and compare with target  Slow, high mental effort
41
pre-attentive perception
 Certain visual features (color, shape, texture) are processed in parallel  object differing from surrounding objects is immediately recognized
42
Sensory homunculus
the tactile sensitivity drastically varies between different body locations
43
gestalt laws name
good shape/form, proximity, closure, similarity, continuity
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law 1: good shape/form
Perception has tendency towards remembering things as good/clear/simple shapes
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law 2: proximity
 close objects are perceived as belonging together  E.g. icons in apple keynote
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law 3: closure
 Tendency to see complete figures amidst discontinuities  foundation of window metaphor (you can identify every windows even though they overlap)
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law 4: similarity
 Similar shapes appear as belonging together
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law 5: continuity
 Law of the good curve  Continuous shapes appear as belonging together
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McGurk Effect
demonstrates an interaction of hearing and vision in speech perception; if one sound is paired with the visual component of another sound, an illusion can be created leading to perceiving a third sound
50
recognition vs recall
o We recognize better than recall things (-> rise of GUI over command line) o We remember images better than words o Command-based interfaces require users to recall from memory o GUIs provide visually based options that users need only browse through until they recognize it
51
types of memory
o Sensory memory: brief recall of sensory experience; holds data 0.2-1.5 sec; high capacity o Working memory: encodes data using visual/acoustic encoding; limited capacity (around 4-7 +/-2 chunks (Miller’s rule); 15 sec. o Long-term memory (almost infinite capacity, fast recall)
52
Miller’s 7 +/-2 rule:
o Often misinterpreted that it forbids to display more than 7 items at once o But this rule does not apply here since the items and options are visible the whole time and do not need to be remembered
53
Fitts' law
o Model that predicts the time required for an aimed movement (e.g. selecting menu elements) o Main limiting factor for the speed is cognitive information processing rather than physical muscle strength o -> use large width/size for frequently used elements o -> Place important elements at the edge/corner of screen
54
name cognitive models
mental models, golf of execution and evaluation, human processor model, external cognition
55
cognitive models - mental models
 = internal constructions of aspects of the external world  Done through learning and system use  Shallow mental models (e.g. how to drive a car) vs. deep mental model (e.g. how to construct a car)
56
cognitive models - gulf of execution
 Gulf of execution: the distance from the user to the physical system, e.g. many steps in a purchase process on the Media Markt website; could be reduced by removing/combining some steps of purchasing process
57
cognitive models - gulf of evaluation
 Gulf of evaluation: the distance from the physical system to the user; e.g. downloading files from MS Teams, only icon when each file is downloaded completely; could be reduced by displaying a progress bar with listing of current file being downloaded and time
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cognitive models - external cognition
 Cognition does not only take place within our head  We use many external representations (e.g. handwritten notes, to do lists, books) and tools (pens, calculators) that aid cognition  Computer interfaces should provide external representations and tools to support external cognition  3 forms of external cognition: * Externalizing information to reduce memory load (Notes, Email, Calendars) * Computational offloading (use an external representation for solving a problem (Pen & Paper)) * Annotating and cognitive tracing (externalize cognition by modifying representations, e.g. Good notes, mind maps)
60
4 generations of user interfaces
batch processing, common-based interfaces, graphical user interfaces (WIMP), post-WIMP user interfaces
61
batch processing
 Early computers, big, not very interactive  When large volumes of data need to be processed  Quick, low costs, offline features, simplicity  But deployment and training are a must, error occurs
62
common-based interfaces
common-based interfaces  Screens capable of displaying text  immediate interaction  Dialogue-driven interfaces  input commands entered by keyboard  - not user-friendly  Design implications: consistency, popular for scripting, support recognition
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graphical user interfaces (WIMP)
 Memex: * Influential vision of a desktop computer from Bush (1945) * To support knowledge workers in their work with documents * Introduction of hyperlinks  The Mother of All Demos (Engelbart) * Foundation of the technology demo * Networked Computer System (NLS) * Introduced a variety of seminal contributions to computing  Sketchpad * First Graphical User Interface (GUI) by Sutherland (1962/63) * Directly manipulate graphical objects on a screen with a light pen * Turning abstractions into concrete forms
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3 principles of user interfaces
direct manipulation, WIMP paradigm, desktop metaphor
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direct manipulation
o 3 main principles:  Continuous representations of objects and actions with meaningful visual metaphors  Physical actions or pressing buttons instead of complex syntax  Rapid, incremental, reversible actions  + easy to learn, fast actions, immediate feedback, rare errors  - waste screen space, small screens, more time for experts
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WIMP Paradigm
o Xerox Star: origin o Windows: * can be scrolled, stretched, overlapped, opened, closed… o Icons: * represent applications, objects, commands, and tools * Easier to learn than commands * Now universal * Many guidelines and libraries, no need to invent new ones o Menu: offering lists of options * Linear or pull-down -> time to reach the first item is shortest * Rectangular or square menu -> has better average distance to any random element o Pointer: a mouse controlling the cursor as a point of entry
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Desktop metaphor
 A set of unifying concepts to help users interact more easily with the computer  Treats the computer monitor as if it is the top of the user’s desk, upon which documents/folders can be placed (trashcan, disk, calculator, documents)
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computer generation
 1: Main Frame Computing  2: Personal Computing  3: Ubiquitous Computing
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post-wimp why
 WIMP reduces interaction to the visual channel  WIMP interfaces are not optimal for working with certain tasks/ through input devices which differ from mouse & keyboard  WIMPs are pixel-hungry
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mobile user interfaces - key challenges
 Small screen, small number of keys and restricted number of controls  Many different input modalities and techniques available  Are used in different contexts under highly dynamic conditions
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fat finger problem
 Finger has a considerable size -> Unclear where it is touching exactly  In contrast to the pixel-sized tip of a mouse pointer  Okay for very large buttons but getting problematic on smaller elements
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small screens
 Some tasks require space (map navigation)  Multitouch gestures can help because gestures don’t need a button shown in the display
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types of gestures
o Deictic gestures (pointing and selecting) o Manipulative gestures (manipulating an object) o Symbolic gestures (mapping a symbol to a function, e.g. drawing “X” to delete) o Co-verbal gestures (gesturing during speech) o Static gestures (holding a pose) o Dynamic gestures (involve moment, e.g. shaking)
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multi-modal interaction
combining multiple modalities for input and output o Aim for the richness of natural interaction (e.g. combine gestures and speech) o Example: Put That There (MIT, 1979)  Speech is well-suited to select command  Deictic gestures are well-suited to precisely select objects and positions
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conceptual design
o Develop a conceptual model o Address general questions (metaphors, interaction types, functionality) o Not tied to physical constraints -> freedom for creativity
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physical design
o Concerned with the details & gets more concrete o Considers the restrictions of a real product (limited screen size…) o Concrete mappings, dialogues
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conceptual model
o = a high-level description of  How a system is organized and how it operates  What people can do with a system  What concepts are needed to understand how to interact with it
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The 10 + 10 Technique
o 1) state the design challenge (problem, client needs, novel system) o 2) generate 10 different designs (brainstorming, creative, don’t judge) o 3) reduce the number of design concepts (review, discard, gather reactions) o 4) choose the most promising concepts o 5) sketch 10 details/variations of the concepts (explore, generate realization ways) o 6) present ideas to a group (feedback, suggestions) o 7) sketch ideas as they change
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Techniques for Conceptual Design
o Sketches: quick visualization of ideas  Quick, inexpensive, timely, minimal detail o Storyboards: cartoon-like structure  Adds dynamics  Based on scenarios
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Techniques for Physical Design
o Prototypes: simplified model of the final product  Horizontal: wide range of functions, little detail  Vertical: lots of details, only a few functions  Low fidelity: uses a medium that is unlike the final medium, e.g. paper * Quick, cheap, easy to change * For exploration * Gather feedback, summarize problems and prioritize them  High fidelity: looks more like the final system * More details, more precise, interactive * Mock-up of some aspects of the final UI * UI, not functionality, is key!
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data gathering techniques
o direct observation o indirect observation o diaries o interviews o focus groups o questionnaires o researching similar problems o studying documentation
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direct observation methods
 silent observation (designer watches user, no communication)  think aloud (like silent, but user is asked to say aloud)  constructive interaction (2 people work on a task together, conversation, more natural & comfortable)
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interview variants
o focus groups: group interview (3-10), representative sample, gaining consensus view; but can be dominated by individuals o retrospective testing interviews (observational test, record video, have users view video and comment on what they did) o critical incidence interviews: people talk about incidents that stood out; focus on more severe problems
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interview structure
o introduction o warm-up o main body o cool-off o closure

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