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hbio Flashcards

1
Q

Cell Body Function

A

Contains Nucleus and is Responsibile for controlling the functioning of the cell

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2
Q

Dendrite Function

A

Carries messages/nerve impulses towards cell body

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3
Q

Axon Function

A

Carries messages/nerve impulses towards cell body

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4
Q

Schwann cells vs Oligodendrocytes

A

Oligoden— produce myelin sheath inside the CNS whilst Schwann cells produce myelin sheath outside the CNS

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5
Q

3 Functions of Myelin Sheath

A

Act as an insulator
Protects axons from damage
Speeds up movement of nerve impulses along the axon

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6
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

Gaps at intervals along the axons in the myelin sheath

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7
Q

Neurilemma

A

Outermost coil of the Schwann cell forms a structure around myelin sheath - helps repair injured fibres

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8
Q

Neuron

A

A nerve cell

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9
Q

Nerve Fibres

A

Any long extension of the cytoplasm of a nerve cell body - very long exons

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10
Q

Nerve

A

Bundles of nerve fibres held together by a connective tissue

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11
Q

Interneurons Function + 3 examples

A

To link sensory and motor neurons
Association neurons
Connector neurons
Relay neurons

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12
Q

Electrochemical change meaning

A
  • A change in electrical voltage
  • Brought about by changes in chemicals: concentration of ions inside/outside cell membrane of neuron
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13
Q

Potential difference meaning

A

The potential for a group of positive + negative charges to come together and release energy

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14
Q

Membrane potential meaning

A

Difference between ion concentration means there is a potential between inside and outside of cell membrane

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15
Q

How do ions diffuse through CM

A

Use channel proteins such as leakage and voltage-gated channels to diffuse through phospholipid bilayer

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16
Q

Leakage vs Voltage-gate channel proteins

A

Leakage is open all the time
Voltage-gate is only open when nerve is stimulated

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17
Q

What ions does intracellular fluid contain a high concentration of

A

K+ and organic substances made by cell

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18
Q

What ions does extracellular fluid contain a high concentration of

A

Na+ and Cl- ions from NaCl

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19
Q

Sodium Potassium Pump

A

Pump moves 2K+ into cell for every 3Na+ removed from cell; net reduction of positive ions in cell
Must use ATP to move against concentration gradient - active transport

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20
Q

Polarised Membrane meaning

A

Because of a net outflow of positive ions out of the cell through the sodium potassium pump and in addition to negative organic ions inside cell result in inside of cell being more negative
Produces a negative resting membrane potential thus, membrane is said to be polarised

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21
Q

Occurance of Action Potential (3 marks)

A

Occurs due to the opening + closing of voltage-gated channels which causes a rapid depolarisation + repolarisation of membrane

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22
Q

How does a nerve impulse occur

A

A single action potential occurs in one section of a membrane
This then triggers an action potential in the adjacent membranes - continues along the length of a neuron, known as a nerve impulse

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23
Q

Conduction/Transmission along unmyelinated fibres

A

Depolarisation of one area of the membrane causes a movement of Na+ into adjacent areas
This stimulates the opening of voltage-gated sodium channel in the next part of the membrane
Then initiates action potential in that area of the membrane and the process repeats itself along the whole length of the membrane - action potential moves along the membranre away from stimulation point

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24
Q

Why can’t nerve impulses travel backwards

A

Impulses travel in both directions along the fibre, away from stimulation point but nerve impulses cannot go backwards due to refractory period - another action potential cannot be generated at that point on the fibre

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25
Q

Why cant action potential occur on myelinated fibres

A

Ions cannot flow between inside + outside of membrane due to the nerve fibre being surrounded by myelin

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26
Q

Transmission along myelinated fibres

A

Saltatory conduction - Action potential jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next, allowing nerve impulses to travel much faster along myelinated fibres then unmyelinated fibres

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27
Q

Why do weak stimulus + strong stimulus produce same action potential

A

All-or-nothing response - size of nerve impulse is not related to the strength of the stimulus

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28
Q

2 reasons of a stimuli being distinguished through different intensities

A

Strong stimulus causes depolarisation of more nerve fibres than weak stimulus
Strong stimulus produces more nerve impulses in a given time than weak stimulus

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29
Q

Transmission across synpase

A
  1. When the nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal - activates voltage-gated calcium ion channels
  2. As there is a higher concentration of calcium ions in the extracellular fluid, they flow into the cell at the pre-synaptic axon terminal
  3. This causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the membrane, releasing special chemicals called neurotransmitters by exocytosis
  4. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and attach to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron
  5. This stimulates ligand-gated protein channels to open, which allows the influx of sodium ions and initiates an action potential in the post-synaptic membrane
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30
Q

What is a synapse

A

A small gap between adjacent neurons

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31
Q

How are neurotransmitters removed from the synpase

A

They are reabsorbed by presynaptic membrane and degraded by enzymes or moving away through diffusion

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32
Q

3 types of neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine, Adrenaline, Dopamine, Histamine, Noradrenaline

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33
Q

2 Ways in which nerve impulse across a synpase occurs

A

Axon -> Dendrite
Axon -> Cell body

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34
Q

Chemicals which stimulate transmission at synapse/neuromuscular

A

Caffine, Benzedrine

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35
Q

Chemicals which depress transmission at synpase/neuromuscular

A

Anesthetics, Hypnotics, Venom from animals

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36
Q

How do nerve agents lead to death

A

Contain organophosphates, which cause a build-up of acetylcholine at neuromuscular junction
As a result, all muscles in body try to contract which leads to a loss of muscle control preventing breathing and leading to death

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37
Q

What is a nueromuscular junction

A

Gap vetween motor nerve cell + muscle fibre

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38
Q

3 ways in which pain receptors are stimulated

A

Damage to tissues - cut or heavy bump
Poor blood flow to tissue
Excessive stimulation from stimuli - chemicals, heat

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39
Q

Reflex definition

A

A rapid, automatic response to a change in external/internal enviro

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40
Q

4 main properties of a reflex

A

Reflex is triggered by a stimulus - not spontaneous
Reflex is involuntary - without consious thought
Reflex is rapid - only a small number of neurons are involved
Reflex response is stereotyped - occurs in same way each time

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41
Q

Where are most reflexes coordinated and how

A

Spinal cord
- impulses from receptors can be pased to motor nuerons at same level in spinal cord
- impulses from receptors can travel up a few segments up or down spinal cord before travelling out through motor neuron

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42
Q

5 main components of a Reflex

A
  • Receptor - reacts to a change in the internal/external environment by initiating a nerve impulse in the sensory neuron
  • Sensory neuron - carries impulses from the receptor to the spinal cord or brain
  • Synapse - nerve impulse may be passed directly to a motor neuron, or there may be one or more interneurons that direct the impulse to the correct motor neuron
  • Motor neuron - carries the nerve impulse to an effector
  • Effector - receives the nerve impulse and carries out the appropriate response
    • Effectors are muscle cells or secretory cells
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43
Q

2 examples of reflexes in body

A

Saliva is response to sight, smell, taste of food
Ejaculation of semen
Moving limbs from painful stimulus

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44
Q

Innate reflexes vs Acquired reflexes

A

Innate reflexes consist of suckling, chewing or following movements with eyes - present at birth
Acquired reflexes are more complex motor patterns such as riding a bike, jamming on breaks, catching a ball - learnt through constant repetition

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45
Q

What is CNS made up of

A

brain + spinal cord

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46
Q

3 Structures protecting CNS

A

Bone (Cranium + Vertebrae)
Mebranes - known as meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid

47
Q

What are meninges membranes made up of (1 mark)

A

Connective tissue

48
Q

3 types of meninges

A

Dura Mater - outer meningeal layer, tough + fibrous
Arachnoid Mater - middle meningeal layer, loose mesh of fibres
Pia Mater - Inner layer, contains many blood vessels sticking closely to CNS surface

49
Q

Where is CSF found

A

Occupies a space between middle + inner layers of meninges OR central canal in spinal cord

50
Q

What is CSF made up of

A

Clear watery fluid containing a few cells, some glucose, protein, urea + salts

51
Q

3 Functions of CSF

A
  • Protection: acts as a shock absorber, cushioning any blows or shocks CNS may sustain
  • Support: the brain is suspended inside the cranium and floats in the fluid that surrounds it
  • Transport: CSF is formed by blood and circulates around the CNS before re-entering blood capillaries; During its circulation, it takes nutrients to the cells of the brain and spinal cord and carries away their wastes
52
Q

Corpus Callosum Structure + Function

A
  • Wide band of nerve fibres that lies underneath the cerebrum at the base of the longitudinal fissure
  • Nerves fibres in the corpus callosum cross from one cerebral hemisphere to the other and allows the two sides of the cerebrum to communicate with each other
53
Q

Cerebellum Surface Structure

A
  • Surface is folded into a series of parallel ridges
    • Outer folded part of the cerebellum is grey matter
    • Inside is white matter that branches to all parts of the cerebellum (like tree branches)
54
Q

Cerebellum Function

A
  • Cerebellum exercises control over posture, balance and coordination of voluntary muscle movement - receives sensory info from the:
    • Inner ear for info about posture and balance
    • Stretch receptors in the skeletal muscles for info about the length of muscles
      Helps with smooth, coordinated movements
55
Q

What happens of cerebellum is damaged

A

Impulses don’t originate in the cerebellum, so we could still move but movements would spasmodic, jerky and uncontrolled

56
Q

5 Functions of Hypothalamus

A
  • Body temperature
  • Food + water intake
  • Patterns of waking and sleeping
  • Contraction of the urinary bladder
  • Emotional responses - fear, anger, pleasure
  • Autonomic nervous system - heart rate regulation, blood pressure, secretion of digestive juices, alimentary canal movements, pupil diameter
  • Secretion of hormones and coordination of parts of the endocrine system - regulates metabolism, growth, reproduction and responses to stress through pituitary gland
57
Q

Medulla Oblongata 3 Centres + Function

A
  • Cardiac centre - which regulates the rate and force of the heartbeat
  • Respiratory centres - which control rate and depth of breathing
  • Vasomotor centre - regulates the diameter of blood vessels
  • Other centres regulate reflexes of swallowing, sneezing, coughing and vomiting
  • Also serves as a passage of nerve fibres passing through the medulla going to other parts of the brain
58
Q

2 Main Functions of Spinal Cord

A
  • Carry sensory impulses up to the brain and motor impulses down from the brain
  • To integrate certain fast, automatic responses - reflexes
59
Q

How is spinal cord allowed to bend

A

Space containing fat, connective tissue and blood vessels serves as padding around spinal cord

60
Q

What is grey matter composed of

A

nerve cell bodies + unmyelinated fibres

61
Q

How are myelinated nerve fibres arranged in spinal cord

A

arranged in bundles known as ascending/descending tracts

62
Q

Ascending Tract vs Descending tracts

A
  • Ascending tracts - sensory axons that carry impulses upwards, toward brain
  • Descending tracts contain motor axons that conduct impulses downwards, away from the brain
63
Q

Where is grey matter found in spinal cord

A

Grey matter is at the centre of the spinal cord, surrounded by white matter

64
Q

Where is grey matter found in brain

A

Can be found deep in the cerebrum or on outer surface surrounding white matter

65
Q

What does grey matter consist of in brain

A

neuron cell bodies, dendrites and unmyelinated axons

66
Q

Purpose of grey matter in brain

A

sevres to process info

67
Q

What is basal ganglia and what is its function

A

Grey matter found deep in cerebrum - consists of groups of nerve cell bodies associated with the control of skeletal muscles
Function concernes initiating desired movements and inhibiting unwanted movement

68
Q

2 Functions of white matter in brain

A
  • Allows communication to and from grey matters areas
  • Allows communication between grey matter and other parts of the body
69
Q

Convolutions/gyri

A

Folding of cerebral cortex producing rounded ridges

70
Q

Sulci/Sulcus vs Fissures

A

Sucli - Shallow downfolds between convolutions of the cerebral cortex
Fissures - deep downfolds between convolution of the cerebral cortex

71
Q

5 Lobes of cerbral hemisphere

A

Insula
Frontal
Temporal
Occipital
Parietal

72
Q

Function of frontal lobe

A

Thinking, problem solving, emotions, personality, language, and control of movement

73
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Processing temperature, touch, taste, pain and movement

74
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Processing memories and linking them with senses; receives auditory info

75
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Vision

76
Q

Insula

A

Recognition of different senses and emotions, addiction and psychiatric disorders

77
Q

3 Main Functional areas of cerebral cortex

A
  • Sensory Areas - receive and process nerve impulses from the senses
  • Motor Areas - send impulses to muscles, especially for voluntary movement
  • Association Areas - concerned with intellectual + emotional processes
78
Q

How are memories stored

A

Exist as a pathway of nerve cells - new links are made between neurons or existing links are modified

79
Q

Specialised functions in left vs right hemisphere

A
  • Language ability is normally controlled by the left hemisphere
  • Musical and Artistic abilities are controlled by the right hemisphere
80
Q

Tracts vs Nerves

A

Within CNS, bundles of nerve fibres are called tracts; outside the CNS they are called nerves

81
Q

3 Types of Tracts occuring in white matter

A
  • Tracts that connect various areas of the cortex within the same hemisphere
  • Tracts that carry impulses between left and right hemispheres
  • Tracts connecting the cerebral cortex to other parts of the brain or to the spinal cord
82
Q

Function of Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) takes messages from receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to muscles and glands

83
Q

2 things PNS is composed of

A
  • Nerve fibres that carry info to and from the CNS
  • Groups of nerve cell bodies - ganglia, which lies outside the brain and spinal cord
84
Q

Cranial Nerves Structure (4 marks)

A
  • 12 pairs of nerves arising from the brain - such as auditory and optic nerve
  • Most cranial nerves are mixed nerves - contain fibres carrying impulses to the brain and away from the brain
    • Fibres that carry impulses into the CNS are called sensory fibres
    • Fibres that carry impulses away from the CNS are called motor fibres
85
Q

Spinal Nerves Structure (4 marks)

A
  • 31 pairs of nerves arising from the spinal cord
  • These are all mixed nerves - contain both sensory + motor fibres
  • Each nerve is joined to the spinal cord by two roots
    • Ventral root contains the axons of motor neurons - have their cell bodies in the grey matter of the spinal cord
    • Dorsal root contains the axons of sensory neurons - have their cell bodies in a small swelling on the dorsal root - known as dorsal root ganglion
86
Q

Divsions of the Afferent division

A
    • Somatic sensory neurons - brings impulses from the skin and muscles
    • Visceral sensory neurons - brings impulses from the internal organs
87
Q

Afferent division definition

A

Afferent (sensory) division of PNS has fibres that carry impulses into the CNS by sensory neurons from receptors in the skin and around the muscles and joints

88
Q

Efferent Division definitions

A

Efferent (motor) division has fibres that carry impulses away from the CNS

89
Q

Divisions of Efferent Division

A
  • Somatic division (somatic nervous system), takes impulses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles
  • Autonomic division (autonomic nervous system), carries impulses from the CNS to heart muscles and other involuntary muscles + glands - can be divided into
90
Q

ANS definition + operation + 3 Functions

A
  • (ANS) controls the body internal environment - involved in many mechanisms that keep it constant
  • Operates without conscious control and is regulated by groups of nerve cells in the medulla oblongata, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex
  • Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System include:
    • Heart Rate
    • Blood Pressure
    • Body Temperature
    • Digestion
    • Release of energy
    • Pupil diameter
    • Air flow to the lungs
    • Defecation
    • Urination
91
Q

Pathway of ANS

A
  • Carry impulses to the heart muscle, other muscles of the internal organs and the glands
    • Impulse travels along two neurons from the CNS to an organ controlled by the ANS
      • First neuron is myelinated and has its cell body in the CNS
      • Second neuron is unmyelinated and has its cell body in a ganglion - group of nerve cell bodies outside the CNS
92
Q

4 Differences between autonomic and somatic

A

Autonomic Division has effectors of heat muscle and other involuntary muscles + glands, Somatic concerns skeletal (voluntary) muscles
Autonomic division function is for an adjustment of internal enviro (homeostatis) while Somatic Division is responses to external environment
Control of ANS is usually involuntary whilst SNS is usually voluntary
ANS effect on target organ is either excitation or inhibition but SNS is always excitation
ANS consists of 2 sets of nerve to target organ (sympathetic or parasympathetic) whilst somatic division is just one set of nerves

93
Q

Parasympathetic vs Sympathetic + Nerve endings for each

A
  • Parasympathetic division generally produces responses that maintain the body during relatively quiet conditions
    • Parasympathetic nerve endings release acetylcholine
  • Sympathetic division tends to produce responses that prepare the body for strenuous physical activity - known as fight-or-flight response (prepares body for situations that may involve aggression or fleeing from a threat)
    • Sympathetic nerve endings release noradrenaline
94
Q

Sympa vs Parasympa effects on body (4)

A

Sympa dilates pupils, increases sweat secretion, decreases saliva secretion, constricts skin blood vessels

95
Q

Immune response definition

A

Defined as a response triggered by foreign substances or micro-organisms entering the body causing lymphocytes such as B + T-cells to respond

96
Q

Where a B-cells + T-cells produced and how do they mature

A
  • Half the cells produced by bone marrow go to thymus to mature into T-Cells - become a part of lymphoid tissue
  • Other half stays in bone marrow and mature into B-cells - become a part of lymphoid tissue
97
Q

2 parts of an immune response

A
  • Humoral Response; Antibody-mediated immunity - involves the production of antibodies by B-cells - circulate around the body and attack invading agents
  • Cell-Mediated Response - Occurs due to T-cells - involves the formation of special lymphocytes that destroy invading agents
98
Q

Antigen definition and examples

A

Described as any substance capable of causing a specific immune response
proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, Virus particles, Micro-organisms, Toxins, Egg whites

99
Q

Self Antigen vs Non-self antigens

A
  • Self Antigens - any large molecule produced in a person’s own body; does not cause an immune response in that person
  • Non-self antigens - any foreign compound to the body that triggers an immune response
    • Immune system only attack non-self antigens; prescribed at birth
100
Q

Antibodies definition

A

Defined as a Y-shaped specialised proteins produced by plasma cells in a response to a non-self antigen

101
Q

What are plasma cells

A

Plasma cells are cells that develop from a B-cell and produce antibodies

102
Q

Ways in which antibodies work

A
  • Inactivate foreign enzymes or toxins by combining with them or inhibiting their reaction with other cells/compounds
  • Bind to the surface of viruses and prevent them entering cells
  • Coat bacteria so its more easily consumed by phagocytes
  • Cause agglutination - particles such as bacteria, viruses and foreign blood cells to clump together
  • Dissolve organisms
  • React with soluble substances to make them insoluble and thus, more easily consumed by phagocytes
103
Q

Primary Response vs Secondary response (7 marks)

A
  • Primary response - Immune reaction to a first exposure to an antigen
    • Immune response is fairly slow - takes several days to build up antibodies
    • Takes time for B-cells to multiply and differentiate into plasma cells and then secrete antibodies
  • Secondary response - Immune reaction to a secondary or subsequent exposure to an antigen
    • Much faster as memory cells recognise antigen much quicker
      • Thus, plasma cells can form very quickly and antibody levels in blood plasma rise to a higher level and lasts longer
      • Consequently, antigen has little opportunity to exert any real effect of body - no illness result
104
Q

Immunisation definition

A

Immunisation refers to programming the immune system so that the body can respond to infecting micro-organisms

105
Q

Vaccination definition

A

Vaccination is the artificial introduction of antigens of pathogenic organisms so that the ability to produce appropriate antibodies is acquired without the person having to suffer the disease

106
Q

4 main types of vaccines + example for each

A
  • Live attenuated vaccines: micro-organisms with a reduced ability to produce disease symptoms (reduced virulence)
    • Immunised person doesn’t contract disease but manufactures antibodies against the antigen
    • Examples include polio, Tuberculosis, rubella, measles
  • Inactivated vaccines: contain dead micro organisms which produce a shorter lasting immunity
    • Examples Cholera, Typhoid, Whooping cough
  • Toxoid Vaccines: where bacteria produce their effects in humans by liberating toxins
    • Toxins produced by bacteria can be inactivated so they do not cause actual illness in individual (known as toxoids)
    • Examples include diphtheria, tetanus
  • Sub-unit Vaccine: A fragment of the organism can be used to provoke the immune response
    • Examples include Human Papilloma Virus (HPV, Gardasil) and Hepatitis B
107
Q

Why cant vaccinations occur too soon after birth

A
  • This is because the child’s blood contains antibodies from its mother via placenta or breast milk
  • If a newborn is vaccinated, antibodies from the mother would eliminate the antigens in the vaccine
    • Occurs before the child’s immune system can create an immune response
108
Q

Why is one injection of a vaccine not usually enough

A
  • One injection of vaccine is not usually enough
    • The antibody level from primary response following the first vaccination will decline - a second vaccination (booster) is needed to stimulate a secondary response
      • The memory cells react quickly to this second exposure - results in a higher, longer-lasting level of antibodies in addition to more memory cells`
109
Q

Why does there need to be a gap between OG shot and booster shot? What is the usal gap length

A

If booster is too soon after first jab, antibodies present in blood will eliminate the material of vaccine before more B-cells can be activated
2 Month gap

110
Q

Herd Immunity

A

Herd immunity - a group immunity that occurs when such a high proportion of people in a population are immunised that those who are not immune are protected: less chance of disease being transmitted through a population

111
Q

Bactericidal vs Bacteriostatic Antibiotics

A
  • Bactericidal antibiotics - kill bacteria by changing the structure of the cell wall or membrane and disrupting the action of essential enzymes
  • Bacteriostatic antibiotics - stop bacteria from reproducing, usually by disrupting protein synthesis
112
Q

Multiple vs Total drug resistance

A
  • Multiple drug resistance - resistance of some strains of bacteria to most of the available antibiotics
  • Total drug resistance - resistance of some strains of bacteria to all antibiotics
113
Q
A

y12 (3 decks)

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