Hazardous Earth Flashcards
What are hazards and how do they occur?
Hazards occur when and where physical and human systems meet, often in dramatic and violent ways.
What challenges do extreme geophysical events present?
They pose huge and often unpredictable threats to human life and the built environment in LIDCs, EDCs, and ACs.
What are the three primary concentric layers of the Earth’s interior?
- Core
- Mantle
- Crust
What is the depth of the mantle-crust boundary known as?
Mohorovicic discontinuity, or Moho.
What is the average depth of the Moho below continents?
Around 35 km.
What is the upper mantle composed of?
Two layers: the asthenosphere and the lithosphere.
What characterizes the asthenosphere?
It is solid but flows under pressure.
What is the lithosphere?
A rigid layer sandwiched between the crust and the asthenosphere.
What is the role of convection currents in the asthenosphere?
They cause the asthenosphere to flow, carrying the solid lithosphere and crust.
Who proposed the theory of continental drift and when?
Alfred Wegener in 1912.
What was Pangaea?
A large single continent that existed about 250 million years ago.
What type of evidence did Wegener use to support his theory?
- Geological evidence
- Biological evidence
What is palaeomagnetism?
The ancient record of changes in the Earth’s polarity recorded in ocean floor rocks.
What phenomenon supports the idea of sea-floor spreading?
The symmetrical pattern of geomagnetic reversals on either side of mid-ocean ridges.
What are the three types of plate boundaries?
- Divergent (constructive)
- Convergent (destructive)
- Conservative
What occurs at divergent (constructive) plate boundaries?
Magma rises through the asthenosphere, forcing its way to the surface.
What are mid-ocean ridges?
Long chains of mountains formed at divergent plate boundaries.
What is the average depth of mid-ocean ridges below the ocean surface?
About 2.5 km.
What is a rift zone?
An area where the continental crust is thinning and can lead to the formation of rift valleys.
What is the significance of the Red Sea in the context of rift zones?
It formed from a rift that widened and sank below sea level.
True or False: The oceanic crust is older than 200 million years.
False.
What is the relationship between sea-floor spreading and tectonic plate movement?
Sea-floor spreading drives the movement of tectonic plates.
What characterizes the lithosphere?
It is the rigid outer layer of the Earth.
Fill in the blank: The process by which new oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges is known as _______.
sea-floor spreading.
What geological feature is formed when the crust widens and magma erupts at the surface?
Rift valley.
This process eventually forms features like the Red Sea.
What forms as magma erupts underwater and cools rapidly?
Pillow lavas.
These rounded mounds are created due to rapid cooling.
What is the process called when the denser oceanic plate is forced under the continental plate?
Subduction.
This process deepens the ocean at the plate boundary.
What are ocean trenches?
Long, narrow depressions with depths of 6000-11,000 m.
They are associated with subduction zones.
What is slab pull?
The process where the oceanic crust descends into the asthenosphere, pulling the rest of the ocean plate with it.
What mountain chain was formed by the convergence of the oceanic and continental plates?
The Andes.
This occurred along the Pacific coast of South America.
What occurs in the Benioff zone?
Faulting and fracturing due to the intense pressure and friction of the descending plate.
What is created when two oceanic plates converge?
Trenches and island arcs.
The older, denser oceanic plate subducts under the other.
What is the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ known for?
High seismic activity, including 80% of the world’s earthquakes and many volcanoes.
What type of eruptions are generally associated with convergent plate boundaries?
Explosive eruptions.
These eruptions are characterized by high viscosity lava.
How do volcanic eruptions differ at divergent and convergent plate boundaries?
Divergent boundaries typically produce effusive eruptions, while convergent boundaries produce explosive eruptions.
What type of lava is typically associated with explosive eruptions?
Rhyolite and andesite.
These lavas are more viscous and have higher silica content.
What is the result of a Plinian eruption?
Large clouds of gas and pyroclastics are expelled violently into the atmosphere.
What are the characteristics of effusive eruptions?
Gas bubbles expand freely, and lava flows are produced with limited explosive force.
What is the primary characteristic of strato-volcanoes?
Concave symmetrical profiles formed from layers of ash and acid lava.
What happens during a volcanic caldera formation?
The eruption destroys much of the cone, leading to a collapse of the volcano’s sides.
What type of plate boundary is the San Andreas fault an example of?
Conservative plate boundary.
Plates slide past each other without subduction.
What geological processes are involved in the formation of the Himalayas?
Convergence of continental plates.
This process has occurred over the past 40 million years.
Fill in the blank: Oceanic and continental tectonic plates may converge in one of three combinations: oceanic-continental, oceanic-oceanic, and _______.
continental-continental.
What distinguishes explosive eruptions from effusive eruptions?
Explosive eruptions involve violent bursts of gas, while effusive eruptions involve flowing lava.
True or False: Volcanic activity is absent at conservative plate margins.
True.
What is a key feature of the volcanic activity in Iceland?
Persistent fissure eruptions.
These create large quantities of basaltic lava.
What is a large igneous province (LIP)?
An area covering more than 500,000 km2 that experiences significant volcanic activity.
Examples include central India and the Columbia Plateau in the USA.
What is a dyke in geology?
An igneous rock layer cutting across beds of rock.
What is a parasitic cone?
A cone formed by an offshoot of magma.
What is the relationship between volcanic eruptions and the atmosphere?
Volcanic eruptions can have a devastating impact on the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
What type of volcanoes are formed at convergent plate boundaries?
Strata-volcanoes.
Name two regions known for having active strato-volcanoes.
- Indonesia
- Andes
What are effusive eruptions typically associated with?
Divergent plate boundaries.
What characterizes shield volcanoes?
Gently sloping sides formed by effusive eruptions of basic lava.
What is a hot spot in geology?
A fixed area of intense volcanic activity where magma from a rising mantle plume reaches the Earth’s surface.
What is the Hawaiian chain of islands formed by?
A hot spot where the Pacific plate moves over it.
What is a super-volcano?
A volcano that erupts more than 1000 km3 of material in a single eruption event.
What is the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)?
A scale that measures the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions from 0 to 8.
True or False: The VEI is useful for assessing effusive eruptions.
False.
What are the two key factors in assessing volcanic eruptions?
- Magnitude
- Intensity
What is tephra?
Any material ejected from a volcano into the air, ranging from fine ash to large volcanic bombs.
What can lahars be described as?
Mud flows with the consistency of wet concrete, formed from melting snow and ice during an eruption.
What hazardous effect can toxic gases from eruptions have?
They can pose deadly threats to human populations and lead to acid rain.
What is the consequence of high-magnitude volcanic eruptions on global temperatures?
They can cause a noticeable, though temporary, decrease in global temperatures.
Fill in the blank: The most significant gas emitted by most effusive eruptions is _______.
CO2
What is the approximate area covered by continental flood basalts?
Typically 2000-2500 km across.
What significant climatic events have been linked to large igneous provinces (LIPs)?
Global cooling initially, followed by global warming and ocean acidification.
What event is suggested to have caused the Permian extinction?
Significant peaks in atmospheric CO2 related to LIP events.
Name two significant super-volcanoes that have been active in the past 2 million years.
- Long Valley, California
- Toba, Indonesia
What historical volcanic event occurred in 1883?
The eruption of Krakatoa.
What is the VEI of the Yellowstone super-volcano’s eruption 640,000 years ago?
8
What volcanic hazard involves a combination of hot gases, ash, and rock fragments traveling at high speed?
Pyroclastic flows.
What can be a consequence of accumulated ash on buildings?
Buildings can collapse due to the weight.
What is the primary danger associated with pyroclastic flows?
Instant death due to inhalation of hot gases and ash.
What are lahars?
Lahars are a type of mud flow with the consistency of wet concrete, formed from the melting of snow and ice on a volcano during an eruption.
Lahars can travel at speeds up to about 50 km/h and can destroy everything in their path.
What disaster occurred in Armero, Colombia in 1984?
The town was overwhelmed by lahars following the eruption of Nevado del Ruiz, resulting in the deaths of 23,000 people.
Lahars can generate hazards after heavy rain, especially in regions like Southeast Asia.
What is a jokulhlaup?
A jokulhlaup is a torrent of water that results from the rapid melting of ice during a volcanic eruption beneath an ice field or glacier.
This phenomenon occurs in regions like Iceland where active volcanoes are located under ice fields, such as Vatnajokull.
What happened at Lake Nyos in Cameroon in August 1986?
A leak of CO2 from the volcanic crater lake asphyxiated 1,700 people and all animal life in the area.
The CO2 had built up at the bottom of the lake from the underlying magma chamber.
How fast can tsunami waves travel?
Tsunami waves can travel at speeds of up to 600 km/h.
In deep water, tsunami waves have a height of less than 1 meter and a long wavelength of up to 200 km.
True or False: Most volcanic hazards are long-term.
False
Most volcanic hazards are relatively short term, although large eruptions can have longer-term climatic implications.
What is the VEI?
The VEI stands for Volcanic Explosivity Index, which measures the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions.
It is calculated based on the volume of erupted materials, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations.
What is the difference between primary (P) waves and secondary (S) waves?
P waves are fast-traveling compressional waves that vibrate in the direction of travel, while S waves are slower, high-frequency waves that vibrate at right angles to the direction of travel.
P waves can travel through solids and liquids, while S waves cannot pass through liquids.
What are the three types of seismic waves?
The three types of seismic waves are:
* Primary (P) waves
* Secondary (S) waves
* Surface (L) waves
Each type has different speeds and modes of vibration.
What is the Richter scale used for?
The Richter scale measures the magnitude of earthquakes based on the amplitude of seismic waves.
It is logarithmic, meaning each whole-number increase represents a ten-fold increase in amplitude.
What is a shallow focus earthquake?
A shallow focus earthquake occurs from the surface down to about 70 km deep and is common in cold, brittle rocks.
These earthquakes can release low to high levels of energy.
Fill in the blank: Earthquake activity tends to be concentrated in ______ locations.
four
These locations include mid-ocean ridges, ocean trenches, collision zones, and conservative plate margins.
What is the Moment Magnitude scale?
The Moment Magnitude scale (MW) measures the energy released by an earthquake more accurately than the Richter scale.
It considers geological properties like rock rigidity and fault surface area.
What are the effects of earthquakes on landforms?
Earthquakes can lead to the formation of mountain chains, rift valleys, and alter the morphology of the Earth’s surface.
They can also cause structural damage and ground disturbance.
What is the Modified Mercalli scale?
The Modified Mercalli scale measures earthquake intensity and impact based on observation and description.
Unlike the Richter scale, it is a qualitative assessment.
What was the impact of the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883?
The eruption caused tsunamis that drowned 36,000 people.
The violent eruption displaced a massive amount of ocean water.
What are super-volcanoes?
Super-volcanoes are large volcanic systems capable of producing extremely explosive eruptions with widespread effects.
An example includes the eruption of Toba, Indonesia.
What is rifting?
The process involving the pulling apart of rocks due to tensional forces in the lithosphere or the upward movement of magma causing rocks to dome.
What are the two ideas concerning the origins of rifting?
- Tensional forces pulling rocks apart
- Upward movement of magma pushing rocks into a dome.
What types of hazards are posed by earthquakes?
- Ground shaking
- Ground displacement
- Liquefaction
- Landslides and avalanches
- Tsunamis.
True or False: Earthquakes only become hazardous when they interact with people.
True.
What factors affect the severity of ground shaking during an earthquake?
- Earthquake magnitude
- Distance from the epicenter
- Local geology.
How does liquefaction affect structures during an earthquake?
Fine-grained materials behave like liquids, causing structures to tilt and sink.
What is a significant consequence of ground displacement?
It can rip apart pipelines and sewers, sever rigid structures, and cause buildings to collapse.
What can trigger landslides and avalanches during earthquakes?
- Ground shaking
- Liquefaction.
Fill in the blank: The displacement of water caused by an earthquake can generate _______.
[tsunamis].
What is the height of tsunami waves before they reach the shore?
Less than 1 meter.
What phenomenon occurs before a tsunami wave breaks?
Drawdown.
What can underwater landslides caused by earthquakes create?
Tsunami waves.
What was a major issue during the Kobe earthquake related to liquefaction?
Destruction of nearly 200 berths in the port built on reclaimed land.
What can happen if a landslide occurs above a reservoir during an earthquake?
It can displace water and generate waves that could overtop the dam.
What was the result of the 1963 earthquake in northern Italy?
A landslide generated a 100 m wave that swept over the Vaiont dam.
What is the estimated number of people killed in earthquakes between 2000 and 2015?
800,000-900,000.
Name one location where a significant earthquake occurred that was not thought to be especially vulnerable.
Kobe in 1995.
What can affect the local height of a tsunami?
The shape of the sea bed and the coastline.
What is the potential height of tsunami waves as they approach the shore?
Exceeding 25 meters.
How do tsunamis generated by underwater landslides differ from those caused by earthquakes?
They may not have enough power to cross oceans but can have local devastating effects.
What is the correlation between the location of plate boundaries and geophysical events?
There is a strong correlation between the location of plate boundaries and volcanoes and earthquakes.
What are the three classifications of volcanoes based on their eruption history?
Active, dormant, extinct.
What defines an active volcano according to the Smithsonian Institute?
An active volcano is one that has erupted since the last glacial period or within the past 10,000 years.
True or False: Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions can be prevented.
False.
What has been observed about the frequency of volcanic eruptions in Japan?
The more explosive the eruption, the less variable its frequency.
What is the VEI scale?
Volcanic Explosivity Index, a scale for measuring the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions.
Fill in the blank: Japan has ______ active volcanoes according to the Global Volcanism Programme.
110.
What was the impact of the Mount Ontake eruption in 2014?
Killed 63 people and affected large areas with ash fall, pyroclastic flows, volcanic bombs, and lahars.
What is the primary tectonic setting of Indonesia?
Subduction of the Indo-Australian plate beneath the Eurasian plate.
What catastrophic event did the 1883 eruption of Krakatau generate?
A devastating tsunami.
What was the consequence of the Merapi eruption in 2010?
367 people were killed, 277 injured, and approximately 410,000 became refugees.
What is a significant reason why many people live in tectonically active areas?
Economic opportunities, attachment to place, and limited options due to poverty.
Fill in the blank: Indonesia’s population density is particularly high on the island of ______.
Java.
What is the potential benefit of living near tectonically active regions?
Access to fertile soils and geothermal energy.
True or False: Japan’s agricultural sector uses a large percentage of its land area.
False; it uses only 13 percent.
What are the geothermal energy challenges faced by Japan?
80 percent of ‘hot rock’ locations are in national parks or protected areas.
What mineral is extracted from the Ijen volcano in Indonesia?
Sulphur.
What is a common hazard associated with volcanic eruptions?
Pyroclastic flows.
What impact do volcanic soils have on agriculture?
They produce high fertility, allowing multiple crops per year.
What was the population density of Indonesia as of the latest data?
140 persons per sq km.
How does the volcanic activity influence the culture of Japan and Indonesia?
Much of their folklore and history is associated with volcanoes.
What event in 2011 affected Japan’s energy policies?
The earthquake and tsunami that overwhelmed a nuclear power plant.
Fill in the blank: The average eruption frequency of VEI scale 5 eruptions in Japan is ______ years.
200.
What is the pH of the water in the crater of Ijen volcano?
0.5
This pH level is similar to that of battery acid.
How often does Japan experience earthquakes?
400 earthquakes every day
What is the Moment Magnitude scale?
A scale used to measure the energy released by an earthquake
What significant seismic event occurred in Japan on March 11, 2011?
A 9.0 MW earthquake along the Pacific and North American plates
What was the epicenter distance of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake from Oshika Peninsula?
70 km
What was the maximum height of the tsunamis triggered by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake?
Up to 40.5 m
Fill in the blank: The 2011 Tohoku earthquake caused ________ fatalities.
nearly 16,000
What infrastructure was seriously disrupted due to the 2011 earthquake in Japan?
Power supplies, transport infrastructure, and fishing ports
What was the estimated economic cost of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake?
Between US$200 billion and nearly five times that amount
True or False: The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant was not affected by the tsunami.
False
What political movement arose in Japan after the Tohoku earthquake?
A large popular movement against nuclear power
What was the magnitude of the 2010 Haiti earthquake?
7.0 MW
What fault was responsible for the 2010 earthquake in Haiti?
The Enriquillo fault
Fill in the blank: The 2010 Haiti earthquake displaced approximately ________ people.
1.5 million
What secondary effect occurred in Haiti after the 2010 earthquake?
A cholera epidemic
What percentage of Haitians had no access to fresh water before the earthquake?
50 percent
What was the estimated death toll from the cholera epidemic in Haiti by 2020?
Just under 10,000
What aspect of Haiti’s economy changed significantly leading up to the 2010 earthquake?
Rapid depopulation of the countryside and growth of slums
What is the significance of the Moment Magnitude scale in relation to earthquakes?
It measures the energy released by an earthquake.
List three major cities in Japan located in the Pacific coastal zone.
- Tokyo
- Osaka
- Nagoya
What were the major causes of death in the 2011 tsunami in Japan?
- Drowning
- Burns
- Being crushed by collapsing buildings
What was a major consequence of the disruption of power supplies in Japan after the earthquake?
4.4 million households lost electricity
What was the population of Japan’s major cities in the Pacific coastal zone?
- Tokyo: 36 million
- Osaka: 19 million
- Nagoya: 9 million
What was one of the world’s top five largest recorded earthquakes since 1900?
The 2011 Tohoku earthquake, measuring 9.0 MW
How many aftershocks greater than 4.5 MW occurred in Haiti within the year following the earthquake?
51 aftershocks
What was the estimated number of buildings destroyed in Japan due to the 2011 earthquake?
45,700 buildings
What did the Japanese government do in response to the economic impact of the earthquake?
Injected billions of yen into the economy
Fill in the blank: The 2010 Haiti earthquake had a focus depth of ________ km.
12 km
What was the result of the tsunami waves reaching Antarctica?
They broke off 125 km² of ice as giant icebergs
What was the condition of Haiti’s government before the earthquake?
Weak and corrupt
What was the primary cause of the cholera outbreak in Haiti post-earthquake?
UN troops brought in to help with reconstruction
What epidemic broke out in Haiti following the 2010 earthquake?
Cholera epidemic
Over 800,000 cases recorded with disputed death tolls.
What was Haiti’s ranking in the UN’s Human Development Index in 2009 and 2020?
2009: 149th, 2020: 169th
Indicates a decline in development over the eleven years.
How many people in Haiti were undernourished by 2020?
3.7 million
Out of a total population of 11.7 million.
What was the total amount of aid spent in Haiti by 2018?
$US11 billion
Significant aid but limited impact on recovery.
What historical event established Haiti as the first independent nation in Latin America?
Slave rebellion inspired by the French Revolution
Resulted in Haiti’s independence from France.
What compensation did Haiti have to pay to France for its independence?
$US21 billion
Debt not fully repaid until 1947, hindering development.
What were the main crops in Haiti’s agricultural economy?
Rice
Small farms often self-sufficient.
What impact did US neo-liberal policies have on Haitian farmers?
Bankruptcy for many small farmers
Subsidized US rice undercut local producers.
What are the two largest income sources for Haiti’s economy post-earthquake?
- Remittances (25% of GDP)
- Foreign aid (20% of annual budget)
Indicates dependency on external financial support.
What is the disaster risk equation?
Risk (R) = Frequency or magnitude of hazard (H) x Level of vulnerability (V) / Capacity of population to cope and adapt (C)
Helps assess vulnerability to hazards.
True or False: A disaster is defined as an actual event that usually involves loss of life and significant damage.
True
Distinction from hazards and risks.
What factors determine the scale of physical exposure to earthquake and volcanic hazards?
- Frequency of earthquakes
- Magnitude of earthquakes
- Types of hazards generated
- Population in prone areas
These factors influence risk assessment.
What is resilience in the context of hazardous events?
Rate of recovery from a hazardous event
Indicates how well individuals and societies cope with stress.
What are some key considerations for coping with tectonic hazards?
- Societal inequality
- Mitigation strategies
- Adaptation strategies
- Risk and resilience
Factors influence ability to cope with hazards.
What are the primary reasons predicting earthquakes is more difficult than predicting volcanic eruptions?
- Lack of precursors for earthquakes
- Complexity of tectonic processes
Volcanic eruptions often have observable signs.
What has been the trend in the number of natural disasters over time?
Increased frequency and magnitude of some hazards
Human activities like deforestation can influence these trends.
What is the significance of high-magnitude seismic events?
Occur less frequently but have the greatest impact
High-magnitude events can overwhelm preparedness levels.
What are the ten most serious earthquakes since 2000 in terms of deaths?
- Haiti (2010): 330,000
- Indonesia (2004): 230,000
- China (2008): 90,000
- Pakistan (2005): 86,000
- Sri Lanka (2004): 35,400
- Iran (2003): 26,800
- India (2001): 20,000
- Japan (2011): 19,800
- India (2004): 16,400
- Nepal (2015): 8,964
Illustrates the devastating impact of seismic events.
What was the death toll from the Haiti earthquake in 2010?
330,000*
The death toll from the Haiti earthquake is disputed.
Which country experienced a significant earthquake on December 26, 2004, resulting in 230,000 deaths?
Indonesia
What was the death toll from the earthquake in China on May 12, 2008?
90,000
On October 18, 2005, which country had an earthquake with a death toll of 86,000?
Pakistan
What is the death toll from the Sri Lanka earthquake on December 26, 2004?
35,400
What are the two main types of natural disasters compared in the text?
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
Fill in the blank: The ten most serious volcanic eruptions since 2000 are primarily measured by _______.
[number of deaths]
What are the physical factors influencing disaster response?
- Speed of onset of event
- Magnitude of event
- Duration of the event
What are the human factors influencing disaster response?
- Level of monitoring
- Degree of preparation
- Quality of relief
- Quantity of relief
True or False: The quality of life deteriorates at a constant rate following a disaster.
False
What are the stages of the disaster-response curve?
- Relief
- Rehabilitation
- Reconstruction
What strategies can be employed to manage tectonic hazards?
- Modify the event
- Modify people’s vulnerability
- Modify people’s loss
What is a key strategy for modifying vulnerability in earthquake-prone areas?
Education on evacuation procedures and drills
Which country has established a Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation?
Indonesia
What is the main purpose of monitoring volcanoes?
To provide accurate information for decision-making such as evacuation orders
Fill in the blank: The rainy season in Indonesia increases the threat from _______.
[lahars]
What is one method used in Italy to modify lava flow during eruptions?
Earth barriers
What are some techniques to increase a building’s resilience to earthquakes?
- Steel framed construction
- Cross-bracing
- Deep foundations
True or False: Buildings near known faults are less susceptible to earthquake damage.
False
What is a significant challenge faced by the Italian government in managing volcanic hazards?
Evacuation plans for high-risk areas, such as Vesuvius, are criticized for being inadequate
What are some of the benefits of living near volcanoes?
- Fertile soil
- Access to geothermal energy
Fill in the blank: The _______ is responsible for monitoring volcanoes in Indonesia.
[Centre for Volcanology and Geological Hazard Mitigation]
What is an example of a volcanic hazard that Indonesia faces due to its climate?
Lahars
What is a challenge in modifying loss after a volcanic eruption in Indonesia?
People’s strong bond to their village sites
What is a common misconception about the predictability of volcanic eruptions?
That eruptions can be accurately predicted
What are the benefits of living near volcanoes?
There are benefits from living in proximity to volcanoes, although some groups may feel they have little choice.
What does the reliability and availability of technological monitoring mean for volcanic hazards?
Volcanic hazards are more manageable.
True or False: Eruptions can be predicted accurately even in countries with sophisticated monitoring systems.
False
What organization was established in 2001 to reduce earthquake risks?
World Agency of Planetary Monitoring and Earthquake Risk Reduction (WAPMERR)
What was the purpose of WAPMERR?
To reduce the risk from earthquakes by researching earthquake prediction, tsunami risk, and seismic-resistant buildings.
What significant prediction did WAPMERR make in 2005?
A large-magnitude earthquake was overdue in the Himalayas with an 89% probability of occurrence before 2100.
What catastrophic event occurred in Haiti in 2005?
The devastating Haiti earthquake.
What was the ambitious plan from the 1960s regarding tectonic hazards?
To lubricate earthquake fault systems to increase sliding but reduce sticking.
What has generated a more realistic view of our abilities to control the natural environment?
Catastrophes such as the loss of two Space Shuttles, Chernobyl, Fukushima, and Deepwater Horizon.
What has the Haitian population been preoccupied with since 2010?
The risks posed by earthquakes.
What was lacking in Haiti prior to the 2010 earthquake regarding earthquake monitoring?
There was no monitoring system.
What organization has helped with earthquake awareness and monitoring in Haiti since the 2010 earthquake?
US Geological Survey (USGS)
Fill in the blank: The Bureau of Mines and Energy in Haiti has an annual budget of just ______.
$US 600,000
What is the most pressing problem regarding building design in Haiti?
Inability to enforce earthquake-resistant building design.
What was the focus of Haiti’s construction prior to the 2010 earthquake?
Protection from hurricanes.
What percentage of international aid after the 2010 earthquake was offered to the Haitian government?
1%
How many new houses did the American Red Cross build in Haiti as of June 2015?
6
True or False: The American Red Cross built 15,000 houses in Haiti after the earthquake.
False
What was the average projected cost of the new houses planned by USAID?
$8000
What was the actual average cost of the 750 houses built in Northern Haiti?
$77,125
What is one significant criticism of NGOs in Haiti post-earthquake?
They largely excluded the Haitian government and its people.
What remains in the bank accounts of aid money managers after the earthquake?
Almost two-thirds of the money raised for charitable NGOs.
What does Haiti’s situation suggest about the role of NGOs?
Despite good intentions, there are systemic issues that need addressing.
What is Haiti’s status ten years after the disaster?
One of the poorest countries in the world.
What enables Japan to cope with high-magnitude earthquake events?
Japan’s economic wealth, highly developed education system, and stable political environment
These factors contribute significantly to the country’s disaster preparedness and resilience.
What is the role of the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) in earthquake mitigation?
The JMA provides information and warnings of impending earthquakes and tsunamis
It is central to Japan’s strategies for natural disaster preparedness.
List three mitigation strategies employed by Japan to deal with earthquake hazards.
- Research and monitoring by the JMA
- Buildings with aseismic design
- Community preparedness through ongoing education and training
What are aseismic design features in buildings?
- Steel frames and braces
- Rubber shock absorbers in foundations
- Deep foundations into solid rock
- ‘Soft storey’ at the bottom of tall buildings
- Counter-weights on roofs
- Flexible joints in underground utility pipes
True or False: Japan has fireproofed older wooden buildings.
True
This is part of Japan’s effort to mitigate earthquake risks in historic districts.
What is the purpose of land-use zoning in Japan concerning earthquakes?
To provide open spaces where people can assemble after an earthquake.
What resources does Japan have to manage losses caused by earthquakes?
Vast resources for managing losses, well-rehearsed recovery and reconstruction plans at various levels.
What did Japan reassess after the Kobe quake in 1995?
How it manages the impacts of earthquakes and related hazards.
Fill in the blank: The aim of Japan’s recovery plans is to rebuild physically, economically, and _______.
socially.
What is meant by ‘resilience’ in the context of tectonic hazards?
The ability of a country or community to recover from the impacts of disasters.
Outline three reasons why so many people live on the slopes of volcanoes.
- Fertile soils for agriculture
- Mining resources
- Scenic views and tourism opportunities
What factors influence a society’s degree of vulnerability to hazards?
- Economic resources
- Infrastructure quality
- Preparedness and education
- Governance and political stability
Why has mortality caused by tectonic hazards fallen in recent decades?
Improvements in preparedness, building codes, and early warning systems.
Suggest reasons why the economic impacts of tectonic hazards have tended to increase over time.
- Increased population density in hazard-prone areas
- Greater economic losses due to more valuable infrastructure
- Globalization leading to interconnected economies
Identify three limitations with the data evidence in Table 1 regarding volcanic eruptions.
- Incomplete casualty records
- Variability in reporting standards
- Lack of context for the data such as population density
Explain the role of plate tectonics in the formation of rift valleys.
Rift valleys form where tectonic plates are moving apart, causing the land to drop and create a valley.
Describe the relationship between casualties and earthquake magnitude.
Generally, as earthquake magnitude increases, the number of casualties tends to increase.
Explain why volcanic eruptions vary in their strength and frequency.
Variations are due to differences in magma composition, gas content, and tectonic settings.
Evaluate the view that earthquakes are less predictable and therefore much more hazardous than volcanic eruptions.
Earthquakes are indeed less predictable due to the nature of tectonic movements; however, volcanic eruptions can also be hazardous despite some predictability.
