Hazard Management

Question 1

Disaster

Answer 1

The interaction between extreme natural events and human activity that results in damage, disruption, death or injury. A disaster occurs when a hazard impacts on vulnerable people. Defined as 500 deaths (e.g. Chile 2010).

Question 2

Natural disaster

Answer 2

The effect of a natural hazard. Leads to financial, environmental, and human losses with the extent depending on the vulnerability of the affected population to resist the hazard.

Question 3

Natural hazard

Answer 3

A natural event or process which affects people (e.g. causing loss of life, injury, economic damage, disruption to lives or environmental degradation)
E.g. a flood in a populated area

Question 4

Geophysical hazards

Answer 4

Caused by earth processes:
Internal earth processes or tectonic activity (e.g. earthquakes, volcanoes or tsunamis) or by external processes of geomorphological origin involving mass movement (e.g. landslides, rockfalls, rockslides)

Question 5

Hydro-meteorological hazards

Answer 5

Caused by running water and its processes and those associated with weather patterns. E.g. floods, debris, mudflows, tropical cyclones, storm surges, thunder and hail storms, droughts, bush fires, temperature extremes.

Question 6

Hazard

Answer 6

A danger or risk. For an event to become a hazard, it must involve people.

Question 7

Mega disaster

Answer 7

Classified as over 2,000 deaths, 200,000 homeless, and GDP reduced by 5%.
e.g. Tohoku 2011, 20000 deaths but only 3.5% fall in GDP, Haiti 2010, 200,000 deaths, 100% fall in GDP

Question 8

Risk

Answer 8

The probability of a hazard event event causing harmful consequences (death, injury, loss of property, damage to environment, etc.). The exposure of people to a hazardous event and process of establishing the probability that a hazard of a particular magnitude will occur within a given period.

Question 9

Vulnerability

Answer 9

The susceptibility of a community to a hazard or to the impacts of a hazard event. The likelihood of success of a particular threat. More vulnerable due to inequalities in income, opportunity political power etc. Vulnerability includes underlying causes (limited access to resources, illness and disabilities, age, sex and poverty), dynamic pressure (lack of institutions, population expansion, urbanisation, uncontrolled development, environmental degradation) and unsafe conditions (dangerous location, buildings and low income levels).

Question 10

Hazard Management Cycle

Answer 10

Disaster management aims to reduce, or avoid, the potential losses from hazards, assure prompt and appropriate assistance to victims of disaster, and achieve rapid and effective recovery. The Disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments, businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during and immediately following a disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has occurred. Appropriate actions at all points in the cycle lead to greater preparedness, better warnings, reduced vulnerability or the prevention of disasters during the next iteration of the cycle. The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people, property, and infrastructure.

The mitigation and preparedness phases occur as disaster management improvements are made in anticipation of a disaster event. Developmental considerations play a key role in contributing to the mitigation and preparation of a community to effectively confront a disaster. As a disaster occurs, disaster management actors, in particular humanitarian organizations, become involved in the immediate response and long-term recovery phases. The four disaster management phases illustrated here do not always, or even generally, occur in isolation or in this precise order. Often phases of the cycle overlap and the length of each phase greatly depends on the severity of the disaster.

Mitigation - Minimizing the effects of disaster.
Examples: building codes and zoning; vulnerability analyses; public education.
Preparedness - Planning how to respond.
Examples: preparedness plans; emergency exercises/training; warning systems.
Response - Efforts to minimize the hazards created by a disaster.
Examples: search and rescue; emergency relief .
Recovery - Returning the community to normal.
Examples: temporary housing; grants; medical care.

Question 11

Hazard Profile

Answer 11

Compares different hazards by plotting points visually of different events against factors such as magnitude, speed of onset, duration, areal extent, frequency, damage costs, deaths and recovery rate.

Question 12

Hazard Resistant Design

Answer 12

Putting a large concrete weight on the top of a building which will move with the aid of a computer programme in the opposite direction to the force of the earthquake to counteract stress <ul><li>Building large rubber shock absorbers into the foundations to allow some movement in the building </li></ul><ul><li>Adding cross bracing to the structure to hold it together when it shakes </li></ul>

17. How to design buildings to withstand earthquakes Source: Independent 20 January 1995 Bishop pg 48
18. <ul><li>1989 Loma Prierta earthquake California (7.1 Richter) </li></ul><ul><li>1988 Armenia (6.9 Richter) </li></ul><ul><li>In California with its earthquake proof buildings there were only 63 deaths </li></ul><ul><li>In Armenia more than 25, 000 people died, many inside buildings that collapsed as a result of soft foundations and no earthquake proofing features </li></ul><ul><li>In Leninakan, over 90% of the modern 9 – 12 storey buildings with pre-cast concrete frames were destroyed </li></ul>transamerica pyramid san francisco withstood 1989 loma prieta earthquake, wide base that becomes more narrow and diagonal framswork to proetct buildnig from horizontal and vertical forces, Love and Raleigh waves

Question 13

Macro-scale

Answer 13

Large scale

Question 14

Micro-scale

Answer 14

Small scale

Question 15

Mercalli scale

Answer 15

Measures the amount of damage caused by an earthquake. Composed of increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible sgaking to catastrophic destruction and deisgnated by Roman numerals. It does ont have a mathemaical basis but is an arbtirary ranking baed on observed effects. Refers to the effects experienced at that place. Lower numvers relate to how people feel the earthquake whereas high numbers are based on observed structural damage. Developed in 1931 by Harry Wood and Frank Neumann.

Question 16

Richter scale

Answer 16

A measurement of the height/amplitude of waves produced by an earthquake. The scale is logarithmic as level 2 is 10 times larger than level 1. It is the most common way of measuring an earthquake, developed by Charles Richter in 1935.

Question 17

Modify Loss

Answer 17

the most passive response is to simply accept the losses incurred. This is rarely acceptable, especially after higher magnitude events. More commonly, the strategy is to share the losses. This can be acheived in two ways; aid and insurance.
· Aid is provided at many levels for relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction purposes. High magnitude events are often declared disaster areas, and the losses shared nationally. At the international level, politics and pride often interfere with aid being asked for or given. In such situations, the United Nations is often involved, or charitable non governmental organisations, e.g. the Red Cross are involved in aid. Often, sudden disasters generate more aid donations than slow onset hazards, such as droughts.
· Insurance is a key strategy in the MEDCs. The principle is that people join with a financial organisation to spread costs. An individual needs to act by purchasing a policy, and paying an annual premium. Insurance companies need to identify key areas of risk and hazards in order to secure their business. In 1994, Californian insurance companies collected $500 million in premium payments, but paid out $11.4 billion in claims resulting from the Northridge quake. Insurance for high risk area may not be available, or come with stipulated conditions, e.g. buildings must have certain construction techniques employed. It encourages people to take preventative measures for themselves.

Question 18

Modify the event

Answer 18

these management strategies aim to control the physical process involved by the technological fix, and therefore, modify and prevent the hazardous event, in one of two ways;
· Hazard prevention and environmental control. Ideally, the event would be prevented from occurring. This is currently unrealistic. Environmental control aims to suppress the event by diffusing energy over a greater area or period of time to prevent the event occurring. Floods may be diverted by a wide range of engineering structures, e.g. dams, levees, channel changes or afforestation. Control of atmospheric processes, such as cloud seeding with silver iodide to end droughts tend to be largely unsuccessful.
· Hazard resistant design; aims to protect people and structures from the full effects of the hazard. The focus is on the building design and engineered solutions, e.g. sea walls. Buildings can be designed to withstand hazards, and most public structures, e.g. roads, dams, bridges, will have some hazard resistant features incorporated.

Question 19

Modify vulnerability

Answer 19

this aims to change human attitudes and behaviour towards the behaviour towards hazards, either before the event, or after it.
· Prediction and warning. If a hazard is predicted, action can be taken to lessen its impact on people and property. Insurance companies spend large amounts of money in order to adjust their premiums to cover losses. Between 1970 and 1995, 28 of 30 of Lloyd’s most expensive losses were natural disasters. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 resulted in $16 billion in claims. Companies can thus set higher premiums in higher risk areas. Warnings inform people of impending hazards. They rely on adequate monitoring and evaluation of the data, then the effective dissemination of the information via various information services.
· Community preparedness; This involves prearranged measures and procedures which aim to reduce the loss of life and minimise damage. This includes such measures as public education and awareness programmes, evacuation procedures and provision of emergency shelters, food and medical supplies. Effective use of this has saved many lives over the years, including in the Rabaul volcanic eruption in 1994, where a emergency plan was successfully implemented to save thousands.
· Land use planning; which aims to prevent hazardous areas being occupied by new settlements. Problem is that is cannot be applied to new areas. Success depends on accurate knowledge of frequency, nature, and location of hazards.

Question 20

Multiple-hazard zone

Answer 20

Regions or parts of the world that are exposed to a range of hazards (often a combination of meteorological, climatic and geomorphic impacts). E.g. NZ is a geomorphologically, geologically and meteorologically unstable country where extreme events are relatively frequent. The three main hazards are: 1. Flooding - most frequent and widespread but rarely fatal 2. Earthquakes - most dangerous (similar level of seismic activity to California) 3. Volcanic events - least frequent and most underrated.

Question 21

Secondary hazards

Answer 21

Indirectly related to the hazard. E.g. tsunamis and fires

Question 22

World Risk Index

Answer 22

The World Risk Index (see http://www.uni-stuttgart.de/ireus/Internationales/WorldRiskIndex/) developed and calculated by Prof. Birkmann and Dr. Welle from the University of Stuttgart, evaluates the exposure to natural hazards faced by 171 countries and assesses the inherent vulnerability in the countries towards suffering from impacts when facing these hazards

The index shows that Vanuatu is the country with the highest disaster risk (Index value: 36.72) among the 171 countries covered by the World Risk Index 2015. Tonga ranked 2nd (Index value: 28.45) and the Philippines, ranked 3rd (Index value: 27.98).

Question 23

Tsunami Intensity scale

Answer 23

incorporates 12 divisions and is
consistent with the 12-grade seismic intensity scales. The new scale is arranged
according to the effects on humans, on nature and objects, including vessels of
variable size, and on buildings and other engineered constructions. A short
introduction to the scale can be found in the “Tsunami Glossary, IOC/UNESCO and
International Tsunami Information Centre, USA, 2006 (p. 6)”. In te next lines the full
description of the intensity scale follows.
I. Not felt
a) Not felt even under the most favourable circumstances.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.
II. Scarcely felt
a) Felt by few people on board in small vessels. Not observed in the coast.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.
III. Weak
a) Felt by most people on board in small vessels. Observed by few people in the
coast.
b) No effect.
c) No damage.
IV. Largely observed
a) Felt by all on board in small vessels and by few people on board in large vessels.
Observed by most people in the coast.
b) Few small vessels move slightly onshore.
c) No damage.
V. Strong
a) Felt by all on board in large vessels and observed by all in the coast. Few people
are frightened and run to higher ground.
b) Many small vessels move strongly onshore, few of them crash each other or
overturn. Traces of sand layer are left behind in grounds of favourable conditions.
Limited flooding of cultivated land.
c) Limited flooding of outdoors facilities (e.g. gardens) of near-shore structures.
VI. Slightly damaging
a) Many people are frightened and run to higher ground.
b) Most small vessels move violently onshore, or crash stronly each other, or
overturn.
c) Damage and flooding in a few wooden structures. Most masonry buildings
withstand.
VII. Damaging
a) Most people are frightened and try to run in higher ground.
b) Many small vessels damaged. Few large vessels oscillate violently. Objects of
variable size and stability overturn and drift. Sand layer and accumulations of
pebbles are left behind. Few aquaculture rafts washed away.
c) Many wooden structures damaged, few are demolished or washed away. Damage
of grade 1 and flooding in a few masonry buildings.
VIII. Heavily damaging
a) All people escape to higher ground, a few are washed away.
b) Most of the small vessels are damaged, many are washed away. Few large
vessels are moved ashore or crashed each other. Big objects are drifted away.
Errosion and littering in the beach. Extensive flooding. Slight damage in
tsunami control forest, stop drifts. Many aquaculture rafts washed away, few
partially damaged.
c) Most wooden structures are washed away or demolished. Damage of grade 2 in
a few masonry buildings. Most RC buildings sustain damage, in a few damage
of grade 1 and flooding is observed.

IX. Destructive
a) Many people are washed away.
b) Most small vessels are destroyed or washed away. Many large vessels are
moved violently ashore, few are destroyed. Extensive errosion and littering of
the beach. Local ground subsidence. Partial destruction in tsunami control
forest, stop drifts. Most aquaculture rafts washed away, many partially
damaged.
c) Damage of grade 3 in many masonry buildings, few RC buildings suffer
damage grade 2.
X. Very destructive
a) General panic. Most people are washed away.
b) Most large vessels are moved violently ashore, many are destroyed or collided
with buildings. Small bolders from the sea bottom are moved inland. Cars
overturned and drifted. Oil spill, fires start. Extensive ground subsidence.
c) Damage of grade 4 in many masonry buildings, few RC buildings suffer
damage grade 3. Artificial embankments collapse, port water breaks damaged.
XI. Devastating
b) Lifelines interrupted. Extensive fires. Water backwash drifts cars and other
objects in the sea. Big bolders from the sea bottom are moved inland.
c) Damage of grade 5 in many masonry buildings. Few RC buildings suffer
damage grade 4, many suffer damage grade 3.
XII. Completely devastating
d) Practically all maronry buildings demolished. Most RC buildings suffer at least
damage grade 3.

Question 24

Moment magnitude scale

Answer 24

modern measure used by seismologists to descrive earthqyakes in terms of energy released. based on the ‘seismic moment’ of the earthqyake, which is calculated from the amount of slip on the fault, the area of surface break and an earth rigidity factor

Question 25

Pressure and release model

Answer 25

Shows how a disaster is the intersection of two opposing forces (vulnerability and physical exposure to hazard). Increasing pressure comes from either side but vulnerability must be reduced to relieve pressure.

Question 26

Resilience

Answer 26

resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem or population to respond to a disturbance (disaster) by resisting damage and recovering quickly

Question 27

Risk Equation

Answer 27

Measures the level of hazard risk for an area. Risk is equal to the frequency or magnitude of the hazard multiplied by the level of vulnerability divided by the capacity of population to cope (R=H*V/C).

Question 28

Seismograph

Answer 28

A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record seismic waves. Seismic waves are propagating vibrations that carry energy from the source of an earthquake outward in all directions. They travel through the interior of the Earth and can be measured with sensitive detectors called seismographs.

Question 29

VEI (Volcanic Explosivity Index)

Answer 29

The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a relative measure of the explosiveness of volcanic eruptions. Volume of products, eruption cloud height, and qualitative observations (using terms ranging from “gentle” to “mega-colossal”) are used to determine the explosivity value. The scale is open-ended with the largest volcanoes in history given magnitude 8. A value of 0 is given for non-explosive eruptions, defined as less than 10,000 m3 (350,000 cu ft) of tephra ejected; and 8 representing a mega-colossal explosive eruption that can eject 1.0×1012 m3 (240 cubic miles) of tephra and have a cloud column height of over 20 km (12 mi). The scale is logarithmic, with each interval on the scale representing a tenfold increase in observed ejecta criteria, with the exception of between VEI 0, VEI 1 and VEI 2.[1]

Question 30

Parks disaster response model

Answer 30

Shows the development of the response to a disaster. Involves three levels of quality of life: improvement, normality and deterioration. Stage 1: pre-disaster in normality level. Stage 2: curve starts to descend into deterioration marking hazardous event. Stage 3: immediate response of search, rescue and care. Stage 4: secondary response focuses on rehabilitation to get back to normality. Stage 5: looks at permanent rebuilding of physical and social infrastructire and need to reduce vulnerablitiy which may lead to improvements.