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D386- Hardware and Operating System Fundamentals > Hardware > Flashcards

Hardware Flashcards

1
Q

What is a motherboard?

A

Main printed circuit board in a computer, backbone through which all components and external peripherals connect.

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2
Q

What are the main form factors of a motherboard?

A

● Advanced Technology eXtended (ATX) – Full-sized motherboards usually found in desktops
○ 12” X 9.6”
○ 7 Expansion slots run parallel to the 9.6” side
○ Vertical ridges
● Mini ATX
○ Smaller size w/ same features of ATX
○ 7 Expansion slots run parallel to the 9.6” side
○ 11.2” X 8.2”
○ Less popular
● Micro ATX (mATX)
○ 9.6” X 9.6”
○ Only 4 expansion slots
○ Same screw holes as larger ATX versions
● Mini Information Technology eXtended (Mini ITX) – Made for small form factor PCs and laptops
○ 6.7” X 6.7”
○ Only 1 expansion slot
○ Same screw holes as ATX
● Nano, pico, and mobile ITX – used for embedded computers
○ Size customized for specific need

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3
Q

What are the types of CPU sockets?

A

○ Zero Insertion Force (ZIF) mechanism
○ Intel - Land Grid Array (LGA) - socket has the pins and processor has the holes
○ AMD - Pin Grid Array (PGA) - processor has the pins and socket has the holes
○ Single-socket - only one physical processor can be supported. Limits capacity.
○ Multi-socket - more than one physical processor can be supported
○ Mobile processors are soldered in place

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4
Q

What is the Northbridge?

A

Fast, connected directly to the CPU via the front-side bus
○ CPU, memory, and graphics cards.
○ Heatsink, removes heat from card

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5
Q

What is the Southbridge?

A

Connected to the CPU through the northbridge, handles slower I/O operations
○ Hard drives, USB devices, and audio

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6
Q

Name some expansion ports

A

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), PCI-X, Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP), PCIe x# (PCI Express)

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7
Q

What is PCI?

A

○ Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
■ 32-bit, older technology
■ Network, audio, modem cards
■ Usually 1 to 6 PCI slots
■ 33MHz, slow

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8
Q

What is PCI-X

A

■ 64-bit, older technology
■ Version 1 133MHz
■ Version 2 up to 533MHz
■ Fully backwards compatible

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9
Q

What is AGP?

A

○ Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)
■ Designed for attaching a graphics card to assist in the acceleration of 3D computer graphics
■ Older technology

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10
Q

What is PCIe x#?

A

○ PCIe x# (PCI Express)
■ Modern technology
■ Number is how long the bus is
■ x1 - modems, network cards, i/o devices, audio
■ x16 - Most common for graphics cards
■ 4GB/s of bandwidth per direction and 8Gb/s concurrent

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11
Q

Describe the BIOS

A

Basic Input Output System

Chip containing software which instructs the computer how to perform basic functions like booting and keyboard control.
○ Used to identify and configure the hardware in a computer such as the hard drive, CPU, memory, and related equipment.
○ Manages data flow between the computer’s operating system (OS) and attached devices

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12
Q

What is the CMOS battery?

A

Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor.
small battery directly on motherboard, ensures that BIOS and southbridge settings are saved

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13
Q

What is a port cluster?

A

A port cluster on a motherboard refers to a concentrated group of various input/output (I/O) ports that are located together, typically at the back of the motherboard. This cluster can include a variety of ports such as USB, Ethernet, HDMI, audio jacks, and display outputs (like VGA or DisplayPort), among others. The port cluster allows for easy connection of peripheral devices, such as keyboards, mice, monitors, and network cables, to the computer. It is designed for convenience and accessibility, enabling users to easily plug in and manage external connections to the motherboard.

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14
Q

What is a CPU?

A

principal part of any digital computer system, processes program instructions for output via the instruction cycle

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15
Q

Name some parts of a CPU

A

ALU, CU, Memory management unit, Registers, and bus

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16
Q

What is an ALU?

A

Arithmetic and Logic unit. Performs arithmetic, logical, and bitwise operations on integer binary numbers

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17
Q

What is the CU?

A

Control unit.
○ Orchestrates the fetching from memory
○ Decoding and execution of instructions
○ Directs the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components
○ Performs function at a rate determined by the clock speed

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18
Q

What is MMU?

A

Memory management unit. Manages data flow between main memory (RAM), and the CPU.

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19
Q

What are registers?

A

Smallest data holding elements that are built into the processor itself

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20
Q

What are the types of registers?

A

Accumulator, Memory address register, Current Instruction Register, Memory Data Register, and Program Counter

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21
Q

What does the Accumulator register store?

A

most frequently used register used to store data taken from memory

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22
Q

What does the MAR register store?

A

Holds the address of the location to be accessed from memory

the MAR is essential for the organized and efficient processing of instructions and data within a computer, allowing the CPU to quickly and accurately access memory locations.

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23
Q

What does the CIR register store?

A

Holds the instruction currently being executed

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24
Q

What does the MDR register store?

A

The Memory Data Register contains data to be written into or to be read out from the addressed location

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25
Q

What does the Program Counter register store?

A

The Program Counter is used to keep track of the execution of the program.
● Contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched
● Points to the address of the next instruction to be fetched from the main memory when the previous instruction has been successfully completed

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26
Q

What is a bus?

A

transfers data between components. Referred to as address bus, data bus, and memory bus.

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27
Q

Name some CPU architectures

A

x86, x64, and ARM

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28
Q

What does 32-bit or 64-bit data path refer to?

A

The width of the data bus, address bus, or registers on the CPU.

The maximum amount of memory a 32-bit system can directly address is 2^32 bytes (not bits), which equals 4 gigabytes. This limitation stems from the fact that with 32 bits, you can represent 2^32 distinct values, each value potentially representing a unique memory address.

So, yes more is faster, but 32-bit doesn’t refer to a speed, but a width.

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29
Q

Describe x86 architecture

A

● x86 - 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit
○ Developed by Intel
○ 32 process up to 4GB RAM

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30
Q

Describe x64 architecture

A

○ 64 process up to 16 Exabytes of RAM

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31
Q

Describe ARM architecture

A

○ advanced RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) machine
■ RISC utilizes a small, highly-optimized set of instructions rather than the highly-specialized set of instructions typically found in other architectures
■ Use code to do tasks
○ Extended battery life
○ Produces less heat
○ Currently mostly modern apple systems

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32
Q

Describe pipelining

A

Instead of a single instruction being executed per clock cycle, the fetch-decode-execute portions are overlapped; like an assembly line.
○ Each step of the instruction cycle is being performed by different parts of the CPU to increase throughput

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33
Q

Name some types of multi-threading

A

Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT), aka Hyper-Threading, Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) , Multi-Core Package , Hardware assisted virtualization

34
Q

Describe SMT

A

○ Simultaneous Multithreading (SMT), aka Hyper-Threading
■ Multiple parallel threads, allows CPU to execute multiple threads of same process simultaneously

35
Q

Describe SMP

A

Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) - requires 2+ processors and server-based OS. Uses two synced processor to compute different things at the same time.

36
Q

Describe a multi-core package

A

Two or more processors inside one chip.

37
Q

Describe hardware assisted virtualization

A

run multiple systems on a single physical host

38
Q

What are the three types of data transfer from CPU to I/O devices?

A

Programmed I/O, Interrupt Initiated I/O, Direct-Memory Access

39
Q

Describe Programmed I/O

A

Data transfer is initiated by the instructions written in a computer program. Requires constant monitoring of the peripheral device by the CPU once the transfer is initiated. Time-consuming process that keeps the processor busy needlessly, leads to wastage of the CPU cycles

40
Q

Describe Interrupt Initiated I/O

A

Informs the interface to issue the interrupt command when data becomes available and interface is ready for the data transfer. Leaves the CPU free to keep executing other tasks instead of waiting for I/O task completion
■ Causes the CPU to deviate from what it is doing to respond to the I/O transfer
■ CPU responds to the signal by storing the return address from the program counter (PC) into the memory stack and then branches to service that processes the I/O request
■ After the transfer is complete, CPU returns to the previous task it was executing
■ Much faster than programmed I/O

41
Q

Describe DMA

A

○ Direct Memory Access (DMA) - Allows I/O devices to directly access memory with less participation of the processor and reduced CPU load
■ DMA Controller – Hardware used to provide direct memory access in order to reduce the burden of programmed I/O on the CPU
● Type of control unit that works as an interface for the data bus and the I/O devices
● Contains an address unit, which generates the address and selects an I/O device for the transfer of data

42
Q

Name some types of storage

A

Hard disk drive, Solid state drive, Hybrid drive, Optical drive, USB flash drive, Memory cards, Network attached storage, RAID

43
Q

Describe HDD

A

Traditional, mechanical storage devices, use spinning disks and magnetization to store data.
● Reliable and offer high storage capacities
● Suitable for storing large files and applications

44
Q

Describe SSD

A

Electronic storage devices that use flash memory to store data. Ideal for applications that require high-speed data access.
● Advantages over HDDs:
○ Faster start-up and read times
○ No moving parts, quiet, more durable
○ Less power consumption and heat production
○ Higher data density per square centimeter
● Disadvantages over HDDs:
○ More expensive per byte
○ Limited to a finite number of write operations
○ Lower storage capacity

45
Q

Describe some SSD connections

A

○ IDE, Parallel ATA (PATA)
■Older technology
○ Serial ATA (SATA)
■Replaced PATA
○ PCIe
■Newer interface
■Smaller footprint
■Transmits data on up to four lanes
■Supports NVMe (Non-Volatile Memory Express)
●Flash memory
●Fastest transfer speeds

46
Q

Describe some form factors of SSD

A

○ mSATA - SATA interface only
○ M.2 - SATA or PCIe interface

47
Q

Describe hybrid drives

A

●Solid-state hybrid drive (SSHD)
○OS sees an SSHD as single drive
●Dual-drive storage solution
○Implemented and seen by OS as two separate drives
●Higher speeds than HDDs by using both fast flash memory caches and slower spinning disks
●Provide greater durability than SSDs because they do not rely solely on flash memory
●Cost is lower compared to buying two separate components (e.g., an HDD plus an SSD)
●HHDs offer better performance, higher reliability, lower power consumption, heat dissipation, and longevity when compared to either HDD or SSD alone

48
Q

Describe optical drives

A

● Standard single-layer DVD can store up to 4.7 GB of data
● Dual-layer DVD up to 8.5 GB

49
Q

Describe USB flash drives

A

small and portable storage devices that use flash memory to store data. Convenient and easy to use, making them suitable for transferring files between computers and devices.

50
Q

Describe memory cards

A

Memory cards are small storage devices that are commonly used in digital cameras, smartphones, and tablets. They are compact and provide high storage capacities, making them suitable for storing photos and videos.

51
Q

Describe NAS

A

● Connected to a network and can be accessed by multiple users
● Usually has multiple drives
● Multiple RAID configurations
● Easily upgraded
● HDD and/or SSD

52
Q

What is a RAID configuration?

A

(Redundant Array of Independent disks) - increase storage capacity, improve redundancy, improve speed.
●Typically related to servers, NAS, and SAN devices
●Requires matching drives, all same size and speed

53
Q

Describe RAID 0 configuration

A

disk striping. Written across two or more disks. Faster data access, but if any of the drives fail, all data is lost
■ Adds speed, no redundancy
■ Minimum of two disks required
■ If one disk is lost, all data is lost

54
Q

Describe RAID 1 configuration

A

all data is written simultaneously to two drives. Slower writing, but provides a backup.
■ disk mirroring
■ Adds redundancy
■ Minimum of two drives required
■ One disk can be lost without losing data

55
Q

Describe RAID 5

A

Spreads data and parity among all drives. If one drive fails, the parity information can be used to rebuild the data on a new drive.
■ Block-interleaved distributed parity
■ Adds speed and redundancy
■ Minimum of three drives required
■ One disk can be lost without losing data

PARITY PARITY PARITY

56
Q

Describe RAID 6

A

Similar to RAID 5, but stores two sets of parity information to provide redundancy in the event of two drive failures.
■ Also called the P + Q redundancy scheme
■ Adds extra redundancy
■ Two disks could be lost without losing data

57
Q

Describe RAID 10

A

■ 1 + 0, drives are mirrored in pairs and then the resulting mirrored pairs are striped
■ Adds speed and redundancy
■ Minimum of four drives required
■ One disk can be lost without losing data

58
Q

What is memory?

A

a hardware device used to store computer programs, instructions, and data

59
Q

What is cache memory?

A

●CPU Cache - Stores copies of data from frequently used main memory locations
○Smaller and faster than RAM
○Buffer between the CPU and RAM
○Uses SRAM (static random access memory)
■Doesn’t need to be refreshed (hence, static vs dynamic)
■Faster and more expensive than DRAM

60
Q

Describe level 1 cache

A

primary cache
■ Fastest and smallest
■ One per core

61
Q

Describe level 2 cache

A

external cache
■ Larger and slower than level 1
■ One per core
■ Catches recent data accesses from the processor not caught by level 1 cache

62
Q

Describe level 3 cache

A

shared cache
■ Larger and slower than level 2
■ Shared between all CPU cores
■ Catches recent data accesses from the processor not caught by level 2 cache

63
Q

What happens if needed data is not found in L1, L2, or L3 cache?

A

The CPU will dip into RAM for data

64
Q

Define RAM

A

(random access memory) - Volatile, gone if power is lost. Stores data CPU needs for current processing. Large and high capacity.

65
Q

What is DRAM?

A

● DRAM (dynamic random access memory) - Stores bits of data in capacitors and transistors. Needs to constantly be refreshed (new electrical charge) to prevent charge leaks from the capacitor and data loss.

66
Q

What is ADRAM?

A

○ ADRAM (asynchronous DRAM)
■ Not tied to the system clock
■ Older model

67
Q

What is SDRAM?

A

○ SDRAM (synchronous DRAM)
■ Runs in sync with the system clock
■ Operates same speed as the motherboard bus, but slower than the CPU
■ 66-266 MHz bus (example PC66 = 66 MHz bus)
■ Faster than DRAM

68
Q

What is DDR SDRAM?

A

● DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous DRAM) - synchronizes memory speed with CPU clock speed. Doubles the speed of RAM by sending data on the rising and falling edge of the clock signal (clock signals are timed electrical pulses). Levels not interchangeable.

69
Q

What are the levels of DDR SDRAM?

A

DDR1-DDR5

70
Q

Describe the specs of DDR1 SDRAM

A

■ 2X faster than SDRAM
■ Example: 1600 MB/s throughput (PC-1600)
■ 184 pin connector

71
Q

Describe the specs of DDR2 SDRAM

A

■ Faster and more power efficient, and higher latency, than DDR1
■ Example: 4200 MB/s throughput (PC2-4200)
■ 240 pin connector, keyed

72
Q

Describe the specs of DDR3 SDRAM

A

■ Twice as fast as DDR2, uses even less power, increased latency
■ 6.4 - 17 GB/s throughput (example: PC3-10600 = 10.6 GB/s)
■ Maximum module size 8 GB per module
■ 240 pin connector, keyed

73
Q

Describe the specs of DDR4 SDRAM

A

■ Higher speeds, uses less power
■ 12.8 - 25.6 GB/s throughput (example: PC4-16000 = 16 GB/s)
■ Maximum module size 32 GB per module
■ 288 pins

74
Q

Describe the specs of DDR5 SDRAM

A

■ Doubles the speed of DDR4 to 6.4 Gbps.
■ 38.4 - 51.2 GB/s throughput (example: PC5-42000 = 42 GB/s)
■ Maximum module size 128 GB per module
■ 288 pins

75
Q

What are the memory slot form factors?

A

DIMM, SODIMM

76
Q

Describe DIMM

A

■DIMM (dual memory in-line module) - Module connected to the motherboard’s memory slots two separate rows of different pins. Used in desktop computers and servers
●Usually >= 240 pins
●Support higher memory capacity and speeds vs SO-DIMM
●64 bit

77
Q

Describe SODIMM

A

■SO-DIMM (Small Outline DIMM) – Smaller version of DIMM used in laptops, compact desktops
●Usually <= 204 pins
●Example SODIMM PC4-16000 = DD4 SODIMM 16 GB/s

78
Q

What is virtual RAM?

A

○ Disk storage acts as additional RAM
○ Used to compensate for insufficient RAM during heavy multitasking or resource intensive processes
○ Frees up RAM by swapping data that hasn’t been used recently over to a storage device (HHD/SSD)
○ Referred to as a “paging file” on Windows and “Swap Space” on Mac/Linux

79
Q

What are the two types of error detection for memory?

A

Parity -checks one bit per byte. Sum of byte odd or even. Detects but does not repair corrupted byte.

ECC (error correcting code) - checks two bits per byte for variance. Detects corrupted byte, interprets and repairs corrupted byte.

80
Q

What is ROM?

A

(read-only memory) - Permanent, slower memory. Used to boot the computer. Small and low capacity

81
Q

What are the two types of ROM?

A

PROM (Programmable ROM) - contents can be changed once after manufacture. Data then permanent, cannot be changed
EPROM (Erasable PROM) - can be erased and reprogrammed

D386- Hardware and Operating System Fundamentals (5 decks)

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