Hard Stuff Flashcards
Processing Principles
Motivational Principles
Conservatism, accessibility, depth
Mastery, connectedness, me and mine
Reliability and Validity Testing
Test-retest reliability, split-half, cronbach’s alpha
Face validity, content validity, criterion-related validity, concurrent & predictive validity
Regression line values
b = covariance/variance(x)
a (constant) = y - bx
Self-concept, self-aspect and self-schemas
Concept - Mental representation of self-knowledge
Aspect - Domain specific beliefs
Schemas - Guide interpretation and performance of self
Social comparison and social feedback
Self-knowledge comes from comparison to others
Attribution of attributes shown to cause enduring change in behaviour (Miller, 1975)
Social comparisons and self-defense
Typically upward, downward when threatened
Attribution of negative behaviours to situation
Salient information in first impressions
Higgins, Rholes and Jones (1977) - Memorised words affected intepretation
Covariation theory of attribution
Consensus, distinctiveness and consistency
5 stages of group formation
Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning (Tuckman, 1965)
Socialisation
Mutual processes of socialisation
A, B, C changes occurring as individuals join and leave groups
Investigation, socialisation, maintenence (Moreland and Levine)
Affects of groups
Social facilitation - better performance when others present (Triplet , 1898)
Social loafing - Less effort when in a group (Latane, Williams and Harkin, 1979)
De-individuation - Group norms maximally salient; anonymity exacerbates effects of group norms (Johnson and Dowling)
Category Differentiation Model
Categorisation produces strong intergroup differentiation, assumption of intragroup homogeneity`
Stereotype Prejudice and Discrimnation
Cognitive representation of expectations
Evaluations
Behaviours
Ingroup favouritism
Tajifel et al, 1971; people prefer to have positive self-concept (social identity theory)
Group serving biases (Oscamp and Harty, 1966)
Intergroup conflict
Realistic conflict theory: competition produces hostility (Levine and Campbell, 1972)
Integrated threat theory: Realistic threat, symbolic threat, intergroup anxiety (Stephan and Stephan, 1985; Riek et al, 2006)
Reduce by contact, empathy and perspective changing, changing categorisation
Attitude
Functions
Mental representations of a summary evaluation
Knowledge, instrumental, social identity, value expression, self-esteem
Formation
Affective - Mere exposure, evaluative conditioning
Behaviour - Transferral, self-perception, reducing dissonance (Joystick experiment; Laham et al, 2014)
Cognitive - Reasoned inference
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Central vs Peripheral Route, dependent on motivation and capacity
Quality most influential for central, Quantity for peripheral
Credible and attractive sources
Behaviour Change from Dissonance
Action must be perceived as: inconsistent, freely chosen and contributing to negative arousal
Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) - Justification based on being paid $1 or $20 to lie
Post decisional dissonance (Brehm, 1956), amplify positives of chosen option
Predicting Behaviour From Attitudes
R = .30 (Wicker), specificty of measurement increases predictive value
Intentional (indirect, TPB), habitual (none) and uncontrolled behaviours (direct)
Relational Models
Communal sharing, authority ranking, equality matching, market pricing
Attraction
Physical attractiveness - self fulfilling prophecy (Snyder, Tanke and Berscheid, 1977)
Similarity - Positive interaction over common interest s (Condon and Crando)
Proximity (Festinger, Schacter and Back, 1950)
Familiarity - Mere exposure increases interaction (Moreland and Beach, 1992)
Mimicry - Confederates that mimic are more likeable (Chartrand and Bargh, 1999)
Close Relationships
Strong, frequent interdependence
Cognitive - overlap of self-representation
Behavioural - Reciprocation less important among best friends (CS; Aron et al, 1991)
Affective - Intimacy
Commitment
Long term orientation with intention to maintain over time and foster a strong emotional bond Investment model (Rustbult, 1980) - satisfaction, alternatives, size of investment
Love
Triangular theory of love - intimacy, passion, comitment (Sternberg, 1986)
Accomodation
Process of responding to a negative action by partner (Rustbult, 1991)
Constructive/destructive, active/passive
Social Support and Loneliness
Significant impact on mortality (Horthunstad et al, 2010)
Loneliness is self reinforcing (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009)
Why help
Perceived need and deservingness
Identifiable victims more compelling than statistical victims (Small et al, 2007)
Helper personality (agreeableness)
Accessibility of prosocial thoughts (Greitmeyer and Osswald, 2010)
Social Factors Inhibiting Helping
Bystander effect (Darley and Latan, 1968) Privacy norm (Shortland and Straw, 1976) Busyness (Darley and Batson 1973)
Egoism and Helping
Negative state relief model (Schaller and Cialdini, 1988)
Helping more likely when negative state experienced (Cialdini, Darby and Vincent, 1973)
Personal distress important if no other way to reduce aversion, empathic concern always important (Batson et al 1981)
Dependency vs Autonomy Oriented Help
Preference for autonomy, less respect and trust for peers who offer autonomy oriented help (Alvarez and Van Leeuwen, 2011)
Factors Promoting Aggression
Cultures of honor (Nisbett and Cohen, 1996) - SA men more than NA (Cohen et al)
Frustration (Dollard et al, 1939)
Cues and saliency
Manifesting Aggression
Processing, GAM, Decreasing Aggression
Deeper processing prevents
Processing prevented by arousal, time pressure, alcohol
General aggression model (Anderson and Bushman, 2002): personal and situational > internal state > appraisal > behaviour
Norms of non-aggression, minimising cues, reappraisal, empathy, non aggressive strategies
Catharsis ineffective (Bushman, 2002)
Kin Selection
In squirrels (Sherman) and LA women (Essock et al, 1995) Step parents predictive of abuse (Daly and Wilson, 1988) Grandparental investment dependent on certainty (Laham et al, 2015)
Signature Moral Response
In response to violations that are serious, wrong, punishable, authority independent, universal
Sometimes involved in non-harmful violations (Haidt et al, 1993)
Moral Domains
Schweder et al (1997) - Autonomy, community, divinity
Haidt and Graham - Harm/care, fairness/reciprocity, authority, ingroup/loyalty, purity/sanctity
Competition of Reason and Emotion in Morality
Moral reasoning vs moral intuition (e.g. moral dumbfounding)
Utilitarian favoured in footbridge dilemma when no direct contact; though effect negated when negative affect reduced (Greene et al, 2004)
Persisting Traits
Self control predicted higher SAT, coping skills, lower aggression, educational attainment, lower drug use, better health (Mischel et al)
Temper tantrums >emotional instability, 3rd grade aggression > Criminality, inhibition at 3 > low positive emotionality, social potency and wellbeing (Mcadams and Olson, 2010)
Rank order Stability
r=.65 for Big 5 traits (Costa and McCrae, 1994)
Most stability genetic, most change environmental (McGue et al, 2003)
Mean level change
O, E, N drop over adult years, A and C rise (Costa and McCrae, 1994)
Possibly due to importance of devlopmental tasks
Genetic similarity in mean level change in twins and across cultures
Major life transitions (Roberts, 1997)
Individual change
Change in conscientiousness > better health
personality > positive work experience > change in personality
Travel > increased O and A, decreased N (Zimmerman and Nyer, 2013)
Variance in state exterversion a result of momentary goals (McCabe and Fleeson 2012)
Change of 0.2 SDs per month (Hudson and Fraley, 2015)
Achievement
C important for educational and occpational achievement (Barrick and Mount; Scmidt and Hunter)
O important in Arts, Intellect in sciences (Kaufman et al, 2015)
Cognitive ability, C, O linked to GPA (Poropart, 2009)
Indirect effects of Personality Examples
Effortful study strategies explain relationship between C and course performance (Corker et al, 2012)
E only predicts performance when linked with rewards (Stewart, 1991)
Personality and Mortality
High C = lower probability of death (Martin et al, 2007)
C negatively correlated with drug and alcohol use, unhealthy eating, risky sexual behaviour (Bogg and Roberts, 2004)
Wellbeing correlated with E and (low) N
A may protect against biological factors for heart disease (Smith and Spiro, 2002)
Personality and Relationships
A and C correlated with marital satisfaction (Dyrenfort et al, 2010), lower infidelity (Schmitt, 2004)
N negativvely related to marital stability (Kelly and Conley, 1987)
Low A and Low C = negative communication patterns, N = negative emotionality = divorce (Solomon and Jackson, 2014)
Personality and Aggression
Low A and Low C positively related with antisocial behaviour and aggression, gang involvement, delinquency and vandalism
White collar crime linked to conscientiousness
Personality and Political Orientation
Liberals higher in O, lower i C
RWA = O, C
SDO = A, -C
Valuing change = O, order = C, harmony = A
Situations
Trait performance stronger in “weak” situations compared to “strong”, enhanced in trait relevant situations (Tett and Burnett, 2003)
DIAMONDS; Duty, intellect, adversity, mating, positivity, negativity, deception, sociality (Rauthman et al, 2014)
