Haematology_Medicine Flashcards

1
Q

Anaemia - cause categorization? Ix? Deficiency-related anaemia - causes & relevant deficiencies?

A

Hb normal range: 130-175

MCV normal range: 82-98

Categorization:

  • MICROcytic - IDA, thalassaemia, anaemia of chr disease (can be normocytic)
  • NORMOcytic - acute bleed, aplastic anaemia, mixed anaemia (micro & macro)
  • MACROcytic - B12/folate def, alcohol excess, haemolytic anaemia

Ix: FBC

  • Microcytic - haematinics (Fe profile), Hb electrophoresis (thalassemia/SCD Dx)
  • Macrocytic - B12, folate, DAT test (AI haemolytic anaemia Dx)

Deficiency-related anaemia:

  • Poor dietary intake - Fe, B12, folate
  • Malabsorption (IBD) - Fe, B12
  • Pernicious anaemia (AI parietal cell destruction -> don’t prod intrinsic factor -> escorts B12 to terminal ileum for absorption) - B12
  • Crohn’s disease (most common in terminal ileum where B12 is absorbed) - B12
  • Bleeding (GI, menstrual) - Fe
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2
Q

Multiple myeloma - def? pathophysiology? Spectrum of disease? Ix? Dx? Mx?

A

Def: cancer of plasma cells –> excessive monoclonal Ig prod

  • Plasma cell dyscrasia (humoral immune dysfunction) – clonal plasma cell population –> proliferate –> monoclonal Ig light chains (in blood = paraprotein, in urine = Bence Jones protein)
  • Pathophysiology:
    • Normally e.g. 5 different types of plasma cells produce 5 different types of Ig
    • In MM - one type of plasma cell outcompetes the others so lots of 1 type of Ig produced

Spectrum of disease:

  • Multiple Myeloma:
    • >1 focal lesion on MRI
    • BM plasma cells >60%
    • End organ damage (1+ of CRAB(S)):
      • Calcium (>2.75) - high: lytic bone lesions –> release Ca into circulation
        • NOTE: stones, bones, abdo groans, thrones, psychiatric overtones
      • Renal (from excess Ig) – creatinine clearance <40ml/min OR creatinine >177
      • Anaemia (Hb <100g/l) - BM supression
      • Bone lesions (lytic)
      • Signs of amyloidosis – damage from misfolded protein prod
  • Smouldering/asymptomatic myeloma
    • Serum monoclonal protein >3g/dL
    • BM plasma cells 10-60% in marrow
    • NO end-organ damage (CRABS) BUT most progress to MM untreated
  • Monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance (MGUS)
    • Serum monoclonal protein <3g/dL
    • Plasma cells <10% in BM
    • No end-organ damage (CRABS)
    • NOTE: 1-2% progress to MM, very common in elderly (if low risk – yearly bloods)

Dx: plasma cells on BF + Rouleaux cells

Ix: ESR, Ca, U&E, serum & urine electrophoresis (to identify an excess of one type of Ig = 1 large band)

  • Electrophoresis (spike in gamma region, isolated IgG Kappa):
    • Normally polyclonal bands, in myeloma = monoclonal band
  • CD138= diagnostic

Mx:

  • MM:
    • Young –> chemo followed by autologous SCT
    • Old –> chemo followed by maintenance therapy
  • Smouldering myeloma – treat
  • MGUS – annual blood test
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4
Q

Myeloproliferative disorders - characteristics? causes? Mx?

A

ALL = tyrosine kinase disorder (JAK2)

Essential thrombocythemia

  • High Pls: >450 (other causes of raise: acute inf, chr infl, malig (5-10%), polycythaemia rubra vera)
  • JAK2 mutation in 55%
  • Mx: aspirin to reduce stroke risk, hydroxycarbamide to lower pl count

Polycythemia vera

  • _High RBC_s:
    • Haematocrit >0.52 (M) /0.48 (F)
    • Often thrombocytosis – high risk of thrombotic event (MI, stroke, Budd-Chiari)
    • JAK2 mutation in 90%
  • Causes:
    • Primary: polycythaemia rubra vera
    • Secondary: altitude, chr hypoxia (severe COPD, cyanotic HD), erythropoietin-secreting renal cancers (RCC)
      • NOTE: secondary polycythaemia = no JAK2 mutation
  • Presentation: itchy (pruritus) after shower, peptic ulcers (increased histamine)
    • If very high RBC count –> hyperviscosity Sx, splenomegaly, thrombosis, gout
  • Mx:
    • Aspirin to reduce stroke risk, hydroxycarbamide to lower pl count
    • Venesection (removing blood –> lowers haematocrit)

Myelofibrosis

  • decrease all myeloid cell lines: MASSIVE SPLENOMEGALY
    • Clonal prolif of stem cells in BM –> cytokine release + fibrosis of BM –> pancytopenia
    • Features:
      • JAK2 mutation in 50%
      • Pancytopenia
      • Massive splenomegaly (extramedullary hematopoiesis)
      • Dry tap – on BM aspiration
      • Tear drop poikilocytes – on BF (leucoerythroblastic film)
  • Mx: stem cell transplant = only cure, ruloxitinib (JAK inhibitor)
  • NOTE: CML increases all myeloid cell lines (opposite)
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5
Q

Myelodysplastic syndromes

Dx? Characteristics? Ix findings? Prognosis?

A

Myelodysplastic syndromes (MDS)

  • Pre-malignant BM failure/’early AML’ (<20% blasts; NOTE: >20% blasts = AML)
    • All 3 myeloid cell lines can be affected (erythroid, megakaryocyte, granulocyte)
    • Asymptomatic –risk progression–> AML
    • Can be secondary to chemo
  • Ix:
    • Hyposegmented + hypogranular neutrophils
    • Present w/ incidental pancytopenia, can have macrocytic anaemia (normal ferritin/B12/folate/erythropoietin –> suspicious of MDS)
  • Prognosis: 30% progress to AML, risk assessed w/ IPSS score
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6
Q

Classical Hodgkin’s lymphoma - peaks when? presentation? histology? most common type? assoc inf? Mx?

A
  • Peaks: young, older adults
  • Presentation: localised LNs (freq mediastinal), B-symptoms (fever, WL, NS)
    • NHL = multiple nodal sites
    • Pain in LNs after alcohol
    • Neck node “rubbery”
    • Possibly assoc w/ EBV inf
  • Histology: Reed-Sternberg cells (“Owl’s eye” inclusions) = Dx (only 1 needed)
    • Other findings – eosinophils/macrophages, reactive fibrosis
    • Dx markers: CD30/15
  • Nodular sclerosing = most common type
  • Mx: ABVD chemo + radiotherapy –> good prognosis –> sometimes SCT
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7
Q

MICROangiopathic haemolytic anaemia (MAHA)

  • Haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS)
  • Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP)
  • Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
A

MICROangiopathic haemolytic anaemia (MAHA)

  • Non-immune-mediated, small vessel disease, RBC breakdown
  • Damage to endothelial BV lining –> fibrin deposition + platelet aggregation –> fragmentation of RBCs (Schistocytes)
  • It is a mechanism NOT a disease

Haemolytic Uraemic Syndrome (HUS)

  • Post-_diarrhoeal_ illness – do NOT give abx
    • E.coli O157:H7 –> Shiga-like toxin can cause glomerular endothelial injury –> platelet plug forms (platelet consumption) –> shearing of blood vessels (MAHA) + reduced renal perfusion –> renal failure
    • Can get type with complement factor H deficiency
  • Diarrhoea in child –> triad:
    • MAHA (features on peripheral blood smear e.g. schistocytes)
      • Haemolysis signs - high LDH, low haptoglobins
    • Thrombocytopenia
    • acute renal failure (self-limiting in children)
  • Supportive Mx, anti-C5 Ab (ecluzimab)

TTP

  • Pathophysiology:
    • vWF multimers are normally broken down by ADAMTS13 but in TTP Abs against this –> reduced ADAMTS13
      • Causes: unknown, cancer, pregnancy
    • Increased vWF multimers = very sticky –> attach to endothelium & platelet plug forms (platelet consumption) –> shearing of blood vessels (MAHA) + reduced end-organ perfusion (can happen anywhere) –> confusion (brain), renal failure (kidneys)
  • Pentad: MAHA, thrombocytopenia, acute renal failure, NEURO Sx, fever
    • Case: 40yrs, fever, headache, jaundice for 1wk, temp 39, confused
      • Purpura, bleeding gums, haemoglobinuria
      • Bilirubin & LDH high = MAHA
  • Ab to metalloproteinase
  • Supportive Mx - plasma exchange + FFP

DIC

  • Trigger (sepsis, tumour, pancreatitis) –> increased exposure to Tissue factor –> factor 7 converted to 7a = coagulation cascade –> lots of miniclots formed throughout circulation - platelet & coagulation factor consumption​​
  • Very bad bleeding, Low platelets, PT & aPTT low (all coagulation factors low), low fibrinogen
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8
Q

Myelodysplasia vs Myelofibrosis

A

In normal BM - stem cells –> differentiate & proliferate

Myelodysplasia - abn differentiation of myeloid progenitor cells

  • Def: BM disorder resulting in pancytopenia AND production of functionally immature blood cells (essentially it is ‘early AML’, <20% blasts)
  • Chemo is a RF
  • Key facts:
    • Pancytopenia (all 3 myeloid lines can be affected)
    • 1/3 cases –> AML

Myelofibrosis

  • Def: clonal BM disorder characterised by deposition of fibrous scar tissue (over time, less and less tissue in BM that can produce blood cells)
  • Key facts:
    • Pancytopenia
    • Tear drop cells
    • Dry tap (due to level of fibrosis)
    • Massive splenomegaly (a site where body tries to compensate for low blood cell production in BM)
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9
Q

Hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) - Def? Dx criteria?

A

Aka Osler-Weber-Rendu syndrome - AD condition characterised by multiple telangiectasias over skin & mucous membranes

  • 20% cases spontaneous wo/ FHx

Dx criteria (2 = possible; 3 = definitive Dx):

  • Epistaxis: spontaneous, recurrent nosebleeds
  • Telangiectases: multiple @lips/oral cavity/fingers/nose
  • Visceral lesions: GI telangiectasia, pulmonary (increased stroke risk)/hepatic/cerebral/spinal AV malformations (AVM)
  • FHx: first-degree relative w/ HHT
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10
Q

Haematinics - constituents? interpretation?

Iron studies - constituents? interpretation?

A

Haematinics - serum B12, folate, Intrinsic factor, ferritin

  • Low IF –> consider pernicious anaemia (cause of B12 def)

Iron studies - MCV, Fe, ferritin, TIBC, transferrin, transferrin saturation

  • Low MCV, low Fe, low ferritin & high TIBC/transferrin –> IDA (iron def anaemia)
  • Normal MCV, low Fe, high ferritin & low TIBC/transferrin –> consider Anaemic of chronic disease/haemoglobinopathy (SCD)
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11
Q

Coagulation screen - constituents? interpretation?

A

PT, aPTT, Fibrinogen - light blue test tube

  • PT /INR measures extrinsic pathway (factor 7) and common pathway - measures overall clotting factor consumption as factor 7 rarely def in isolation
    • Raised in liver disease, DIC, vit K def, Warfarin
  • aPTT measures intrinsic pathway (factor 8/9/11) & common pathways
    • Raised by same as above + intrinsic pathway issues:
      • Haemophilia A (factor 8 def - X-linked recessive)
      • Haemophilia B (factor 9 def - X-linked recessive)
      • von Willebrand disease (as vWF pairs with factor 8)
      • NOTE: antiphospholipid syndrome can cause high aPTT despite causing clots as inactivates phospholipid used in intrinsic pathway
  • DIC - PT & aPTT raised, fibrinogen & platelets low
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12
Q

Amyloidosis - def? types? Presentation? Ix? Mx?

A

Def: aggregates of proteins with fibrillar morphology & beta-pleated sheet structure depositing in body tissues

Types: occurs as a complication of other conditions

  • AA - serum amyloid A - chronic inflammation
    • RFs:
      • Inflammatory conditions (e.g. RA, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, IBD esp. Crohn’s)
      • Chr infections (bronchiectasis, TB, chr UTIs, osteomyelitis)
  • AL - Ig light chain - multiple myeloma
    • RF: monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS)
  • ATTR - TransThyRetin - familial, wild-type (elderly)

Presentation:

  • Purpura around the eyes, eyelid petechiae, enlarged tongue
  • Carpal tunnel syndrome (bilateral)
  • Peripheral neuropathy (not in AA) - symmetrical sensory loss of feet initially (temp, pain –> proprioceptive)
  • Autonomic neuropathy (not in AA) - erectile dysfunction/orthostatic HTN, GI/urinary dysfunction
  • Fatigue (amyloid cardiomyopathy/nephrotic syndrome), weight loss (cardiac/hepatic amyloidosis), dyspnoea on exertion (amyloid cardiomyopathy)
  • Exam: proteinuria, high JVP + pitting oedema (from restrictive cardiomyopathy)

Ix:

  • Serum & urine immunofixation (monoclonal protein in AL)
  • Ig free light chain assay (abn kappa to lambda ratio in AL)
  • FBC (anaemia), metabolic profile (hypoalbuminaemia, high ALP, low Ca)
  • 24hr-urine collection (>3g/day = nephrotic syndrome)

Mx: treat underlying condition

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13
Q

Case:

  • 45yrs, tingling in arms & legs, loss of balance
  • Exam: loss of vibration sense in both feet
  • Ix: macrocytic anaemia, gastric antrum biopsy - achlorhydria & atrophic gastritis

Dx? Presentation? Ix? Mx?

A

Dx: pernicious anaemia aka atrophic gastritis/AI gastritis

Presentation: >60yrs, female

  • Subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord from B12 def:
    • Weakness, lethargy
    • Paraesthesia, difficulty ambulating
    • Ataxia, shuffling gait, decreased proprioception, decreased vibration sense
    • Memory loss, irritability, depression, dementia
    • Exam: koilonychia, macroglossia
  • Assoc w/ AI conditions e.g. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
  • Risk of gastric adenocarcinoma

Ix:

  • Bloods:
    • FBC, haematinics (megaloblastic anaemia from B12 def), increased serum gastrin (increases PUD)
    • Abs: anti-IF (60% but more specific) & parietal cell abs (90% but can be normal variant)
  • Imaging:
    • Biopsy of corpus/fundus stomach (absence of parietal cell-containing oxyntic glands, achlorhydria, atrophic gastritis) + intra-gastric pH (ph>6 @rest rules out Dx)

Mx:

  • If PUD with H. pylori –> triple therapy (PPI + 2abx)
  • Replace deficiency (Fe, B12, Ca/Vit D)
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14
Q

Sickle cell crisis - Mx?

A

ACUTE (PAINFUL CRISES)

  • Oxygen
  • IV Fluids
  • Strong analgesia (IV opiates)
  • Antibiotics
  • Cross match blood
  • Give transfusion if Hb or reticulocytes fall sharply
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