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Lizzie's HaDPop > HaDPop > Flashcards

HaDPop Flashcards

0
Q

What is a census useful for?

A

Allocation of resources
Projections of populations
Trends in populations such as ethnicity

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1
Q

What is a census?

A

The simultaneous recording of demographic data to all persons in a defined area

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2
Q

What is the crude birth rate?

A

The number of live births in a population per thousand people

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3
Q

What is the general fertility rate?

A

The number of live births per 1000 fertile women aged 15-44

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4
Q

What is the total period fertility rate?

A

The average number of children born to a hypothetical woman in her lifetime

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5
Q

What is the incidence rate

A

The number of NEW cases of a disease in a population per thousand people per year

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6
Q

What is the prevalence?

A

The number of people in a population who currently have a disease

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7
Q

What is a confounding factor?

A

Something that is associated with both the outcome and the exposure of interest, but is not the causal pathway between the exposure and outcome.

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8
Q

How is the standard mortality ratio calculated?

A

(Observed number of deaths ➗ expected no of deaths) ✖️ 100

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9
Q

What is variation?

A

When there is a difference between the observed value and the actual value?

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10
Q

What do the confidence intervals indicate?

A

The range of values that we can say, with confidence, that the actual values will lie in between this range, in 95% of cases

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11
Q

How are the upper and lower bounds of the confidence intervals calculated?

A

Upper: value ✖️ error factor
Lower: value ➗ error factor

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12
Q

What do you do with the null hypothesis if the p>0.05

A

Insufficient evidence to reject our null hypothesis

Ie cannot reject null hypothesis (but can never accept it)

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13
Q

What do you with null hypothesis if p<0.05

A

Sufficient evidence to reject our null hypothesis

Data is inconsistent with the null hypothesis and cannot be put down to chance

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14
Q

What is selection bias?

A

Error due to systematic differences in the ways in which the two groups were collected

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15
Q

What are the two types of selection bias?

A

Allocation bias

Healthy worker effect

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16
Q

What is information bias?

A

Error due to systematic misclassification of subjects in the group

17
Q

What are the two types of information bias?

A

Recall bias

Publication bias

18
Q

What is bias?

A

Deviation of the results from the truth, via certain processes. Seen in epidemiology

19
Q

What does a cohort study involve?

A

Recruiting disease-free people and classifying them according to their exposure status.
Then followed up for extensive periods, disease progress is monitored and incidence rates are calculated.

20
Q

What are cohort studies good for?

A

Rare exposures
If a disease takes a long time to develop
Can look at different potential outcomes for one exposure
Allow calculation of a specific absolute risk

21
Q

What is a prospective study?

A

When disease free individuals are recruited and followed up

22
Q

What is a retrospective study?

A

Disease free people are recruited and their exposure status is calculated from historical documentation and followed up.

23
Q

What are internal comparisons in a cohort study? What ratio does it use?

A

When you have sub-cohorts within the original group and then compare exposed and unexposed within the cohort
IRR

24
Q

What is an external comparison? What ratio does it use?

A

When you have your exposed population compared against an external reference population.
SMR

25
Q

What is the healthy worker effect?

A

Where there is basing of the results when a study involves workers compared to a reference population.
Form of SELECTION bias because an employed individual is more likely to be healthy than an unemployed individual.

26
Q

What does a case control study involve?

A

Recruiting disease free individuals (controls) and diseased individuals (cases).
Their exposure status is then determined using an odds ratio.

27
Q

What is the null hypothesis in an odds ration equal to?

A

1

28
Q

What are case-control studies useful for?

A

Rare diseases
Can look at different potential exposures at once
Cheap and quick

29
Q

How is the error factor minimised in case-control studies?

A

Use 5x the number of controls than there are cases

Easier to find disease free individuals

30
Q

Which types of bias are case-control studies heavily affected by?

A

Selective - individuals chosen not representative of general population eg a rare heat condition, people chosen from the same ward

Recall - exposure status incorrectly determined due to looking back in history to determine exposure status

31
Q

How are confounding factors limited in case controls?

A

Matching up cases and controls with similar details

32
Q

What does an RTC involve?

A

Finding a source of eligible patients
Ask them to participate
Allocate patients to each treatment fairly
Follow up participants in identical ways
Minimise losses to follow up and maximise compliance
Analyse data and obtain results

33
Q

What type of bias does double blinding remove?

A

Selection bias

34
Q

What is intention-to-treat analysis?

A

Includes patients who were not compliant with the drug to give a more realistic idea of how well the drug will do in clinical practise

35
Q

What is the Bradford-Hill criteria used for?

A

To determine whether causal-effect relationship has been established by removing confounders, bias and chance.

36
Q

List as many Bradford-Hill criteria as you can

A 
Strength of association
Specificity of association
Consistency of association
Temporal sequence
Dose response
Reversibility
Biological plausibility
Coherence of theory
37
Q

In an RCT, how can losses be minimised?

A

Honest with the patient about what is involved
Follow up appointments at practical times
No coercion or inducements

38
Q

How can compliance be maximised in an RCT?

A

Simplified instructions
Patient can ask any questions
Simple and accessible for the patient

39
Q

How can compliance be monitored?

A

Urine samples

Blood tests

40
Q

In an RCT, what is clinical equipoise?

A

Only put the patient on the trial if there is a good chance that the new drug will be more effective than the current one
-not subjecting the patient to a known less effective drug

41
Q

Ethics to be considered in RCTs?

A

Clinical equipoise
Patient consent
Scientifically robust (pursuit of information for the good of the general population)
Ethical recruitment (in a region where the drug will take affect)
Voluntariness

Lizzie's HaDPop (4 decks)

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