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ZOOL 463 > Habibi > Flashcards

Habibi Flashcards

1
Q

Albumin

A

Most abundant plasma protein. Large, so it stays in the circulation. Nonspecific carrier molecule that can protect molecules from degradation from being bound to albumin.

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2
Q

Globulins

A

second most abundant plasma protein. specific molecule carrier (forms specific conformation) Incl: enzymes, immunoglobulins, specific carrier proteins)

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3
Q

Fibrinogen

A

plasma protein. Is involved in blood coagulation. Gets converted into fibrin by activity of thrombin.

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4
Q

colloid osmotic pressure

A

is the osmotic pressure caused my protein presence. Increases when protein increases. This is higher in the plasma due to the greater abundance of proteins and therefore, the net movement is into the interstitial compartment . 0.3 mm Hg outward force twd IC.

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5
Q

What is the interstitial compartment composed of?

A

Collagen fibers, proteoglycans that give a gel like medium to the compartment (hyaluronic acid +protein). Only about 1% of the compartment is made of free-fluid,

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6
Q

Edema

A

Swelling of the interstitial compartment . Too much free fluid in the IC. May result from changes in osmotic pressure.

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7
Q

What does the gel medium in the interstitial compartment ensure?

A
  • the uniform distribution of nutrients regardless of body position - not affected by gravity.
  • maintains optimal spacing between cells
  • mechanical support and giving shape to body parts
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8
Q

Lymphatic system

A

Transfers fluid from IC into the veins. Has phagocytic cells within (in lymph nodes) that help to filter foreign substances out of the blood. Lymph nodes have resident macrophages

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9
Q

Elephantiasis

A

Occurs due a blockage(filarial worms introduced by mosquitos) in the lymphatic system. Causes an increase in pressure and fluid build up in the interstitial compartment. Swelling and major accumulations of fluid. This can also lead to necrosis of cells due to the decreased flow of nutrients and gases.

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10
Q

Granulocytes

A

Include basophils, neutrophils and eosinophils which are all also leukocytes. Granulocytes are derived from myeloid stem cells. Polymorphonuclear cells

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11
Q

Erythropoietin

A

Stimulates differentiation from myeloid stem cells into proerythroblasts

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12
Q

thrombopoietin

A

stimulates differentiation from myeloid stem cells into megakaryocytes

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13
Q

granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor

A

stimulate differentiation from myeloid stem cells into monocytes and granulocytes.

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14
Q

monocytes

A

Are a type of leukocyte that is myeloid stem cell derived. They can later differentiate into macrophages or dendritic cells.

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15
Q

What are the stem cells and intermediate cells involved in the production of erythrocytes?

A

Myeloid stem cells, proerythroblasts, basophil erythroblast, polychromatophil erythroblast, orthochromatic erythroblast, reticulocyte erythrocyte.

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16
Q

What is hemoglobin A made up of?

A

4 Heme groups with their corresponding globin peptide. Hemoglobin A has 2 alpha and 2 beta subunits. This is the most abundant type of adult Hb

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17
Q

What forms a heme molecule?

A

4 pyrroles form 1 protoporphyrin. Iron plus protoporphyrin forms one heme molecule.

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18
Q

What is fetal hemoglobin and what makes it different from adult hemoglobin?

A

Fetal hemoglobin has 2 alpha and 2 gamma hemoglobin subunits. Fetal Hb has a greater binding affinity for oxygen and can carry 20-30% more oxygen. It is also at 50% higher concentration in fetal blood compared to adult Hb in adult blood

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19
Q

Megoblastic anemia

A

vitamin b12 and follic acid deficiency - lead to diminished DNA synthesis (which is important for red blood cell production) - causes red blood cells that are bigger than normal (become too big and burst)

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20
Q

Pernicious anemia

A

similar to megoblastic anemia - absorption of vitamin b12 is impaired in the Gi tract due to an intrinsic factor

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21
Q

Ferritin

A

storage area and buffer for iron concentrations in the body. It prevents transient anemia by releasing iron into the body when needed.

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22
Q

transferrin

A

Transferrin is a beta-globulin plasma protein that binds to iron to transport it to the bone marrow for hemoglobin production. Transferrin-iron complex binds to specific receptors on the erythroblasts in the bone marrow followed by endocytosis and delivery of iron to mitochondria for the synthesis of heme.

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23
Q

Platelets

A

Broken of pieces of megakaryocytes, which are myeloid stem cell derived. Platelets do not have a nucleus but they do have some organelles.
Platelets contain:
- glycoprotein surface receptors that mediate intracellular processes and secretion of various compounds
- calcium
- thromboxane A2
- fibrin stabilizing factor
- growth factors

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24
Q

thromboxane A2

A

An eicosanoid produced from platelets when activated to do so. Mediates vasoconstriction and local myogenic spasms upon blood vessel damage to reduce local blood flow and prevent blood loss.
Also activates other platelet cells to aggregate

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25
Q

platelet acivation

A

Platelets are activated by collagen - activation causes the platelets to produce thromboxane a2 and ADP

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26
Q

cyclooxygenase ll

A

COX ll - enzyme that converts arachidonic acid into thromboxane A2 - becomes active during platelet activation as thromboxane a2 mediates trauma response. Cox ll can be inhibited by aspirin/endomethacin

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27
Q

fibrin stabilizing factor

A

Produced by activated platelets. It is activated by thrombin. It functions to help form the meshwork of the fibrin threads during clot formation.

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28
Q

thrombin

A

a proteolytic enzyme which converts fibrinogen to fibrin monomers which can form the fibrin threads. Thrombin also activates fibrin stabilizing factor

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29
Q

prothrombin

A

factor ll - an alpha globulin produced in the liver due to the action of vitamin K
- it’s proteolytic product is thrombin

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30
Q

prothrombin activator

A

catalyzes the reaction of prothrombin to thrombin Upon tissue trauma - a number of clotting factors mediate the production of prothrombin activator.

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31
Q

Factor lll

A

tissue thromboplastin - initiates the extrinsic pathway. It is released from the tissue following tissue trauma. Shorter in terms of clot formation

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32
Q

Factor Xll

A

Hagemen factor. Upon activation, mediates the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation.

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33
Q

Factor Vlll

A

antihemophylic factor - If this is missing, in a male, the male will have hemophilia A - This factor is needed to help activate Factor X. W/o it - clot has a hard time forming - bleeding disease

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34
Q

Factor V

A

proaccelerin - helps to form prothrombin activator - speeds up this process

35
Q

glycocalyx

A

it is a mucopolysaccharide layer adsorbed to the surface of the endothelial cells. It is an anticoagulant that repels clotting factors and platelets thereby preventing activation of clotting. During tissue trauma, this layer is lost which allows clotting factors can activate.

36
Q

thombomodulin

A

an alpha-2 globulin bound within the endothelial membrane that binds to thrombin which deactivates it. Anticoagulant that acts a way from the trauma site to ensure no excessive clotting occurs

37
Q

heparin

A

When combined with antithrombin lll, the effectiveness of heparin increase 100-1000 fold. Activates other factors that remove thrombin. Secretes by mast cells and basophils

38
Q

plasminogen activator

A

When Factor Xll becomes activated during tissue trauma, it initiates a second, slow cascade involved in clot dissolution. This compound causes plasminogen to be converted into plasmin, which is capable of slowly breaking down the fibrin thread. Plasmin = fibrinolysin

39
Q

megakaryocytes

A

Formed in the bone marrow. Platelet cells are derived from cell fragments from megkaryocytes

40
Q

monocytes

A

develop in the bone marrow and circulate in blood to where they are needed in the tissue. Once in the tissue, they swell and become macrophages

41
Q

chemotaxis

A

chemical substances in the tissues cause neutrophils and macrophages to move toward the source of the chemical (inflamed area)

42
Q

granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor

A

Produced by macrophages to trigger bone marrow to create more macrophages and things to help with the immune response. Stimulates both granulocyte and monocyte formation

43
Q

neutrophils

A

62% of WBC. Uses extensions of membrane called pseudopedia to engulf bacteria. Results in formation of closed chamber around the bacteria. Phagocytic vesicle meets with lysosomes. both lysosomic enzymes and oxidizing agents are used to kill the bacteria ex. superoxides, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl ions. Have receptors for complements and antibodies (opsonins)

44
Q

eosinophils

A

Granulocyte. Only about 2% leukocytes. Weak phagocytic activities but work particularly well against parasitic infections. They will attach to parasites and release substances that kill the parasites.

  • they migrate in large numbers to the infected area. Attach themselves to juvenile forms of the parasite and kill them using things like hydrolytic enzymes (modified lysosomes)
  • react to schistosomiasis and trichinella
  • detoxify inflammation inducing substances by releasing hydrogen peroxide
45
Q

basophils/mast cells

A

0.4% of leukocytes. Similar to large mast cells and are located outside of capillaries. These cells have IgE on their surface. Both mast cells and basophils secrete heparin, an anticoagulant. They both release, histamine, bradykinin, and serotonin. IgE binds to these cells during allergic reactions. These cells are activated by C3a

46
Q

histimine

A

Secreted by mast cells and basophils. Increases the porosity of the endothelial layer, increasing movement of water and solutes from the circulation into the tissue. Leads to edema and swelling of the tissue

47
Q

bradykinin

A

increases porosity of the endothelial layer. Secretes by basophils/mast cells

48
Q

walling off

A

during inflammation, tissue spaces are blocked off with fibrinogen clots, reducing the spread of the infection around the body

49
Q

soluble compounds

A

lysozymes, C-reactive proteins, the complement complex-system, cytokines

50
Q

macrophages

A

Are derived from monocytes which are formed from myeloid stem cells in the bone marrow. They have lysozymes in them. They have receptors for compliments and antibodies (opsonins)

51
Q

lysozymes

A

Enzymes that can attack bacterial cell walls via hydrolysis. They split the bond between N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acid which compromises the bacterial cell walls. Present in macrophages and in the saliva

52
Q

C-reactive protein

A

Stimulated by infection and inflammation. Acute phase protein of hepatic origin. Member of pentraxin protein family.
- bind to the surface of damaged cells and bacteria which promotes activation of the compliment system
- facilitates opsonization - bind to bacteria
DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES
- increased, but lower levels of CRP indicate viral infection
- higher levels of CRP indicate bacterial infection

53
Q

C3b

A

Complement which acts as an opsonin

54
Q

C5a

A

chemotactic factor which attracts neutrophils and macrophages. Activate mast cells and basophils

55
Q

C3a

A

anaphylatoxin - promotes inflammation. Also triggers the lytic pathways which can damage the plasma membranes of some invading cells

56
Q

cytokines

A

biochemical messengers that stimulate leukocyte activity following infection (stimulate development of more WBC following infection). Produced by macrophages,helper T cells
Examples of cytokines include:
- interleukins (1-6), tumor-necrosis factor, granulocyte-monocyte colony stimulating factor, monocyte stimulating factor, granulocyte stimulating factor

57
Q

interleukin 1

A

A cytokine produced by macrophages that acts as a proliferation factor. It helps increase the number of undifferentiated cells which can be converted into a number of different WBC

58
Q

Cellular components

A

Innate immune system. Natural Killer cells and phagocytic cells

59
Q

Natural Killer cells

A

They are in the same family as B and T - lymphocytes. They bind to the surface of virally-infected cells, foreign cells, and some tumor cells. They function by using specific surface recognition. The are present in the placenta. They secrete cytokines. NK cells release granules that cause perforation of target cells. NK cells are activated by interferons. NK cells can also secrete cytokines

60
Q

interferons

A

a family of glycoproteins that are produced by virally infected cells or other lymphocytes. They activate NK cells, and other cells through specific membrane receptors, blocking the synthesis of some proteins. They act in a paracrine fashion on neighbouring cells, reducing the DNA replications of viral cells, reducing the spread of the virus. Form the first line of defense against viral infections

61
Q

polymorphonuclear cells

A

basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils

62
Q

igG

A

immunoglobulin G - constitutes about 75% of our antibodies. reduces functionality of toxins via immunoneutralization. bivalent

63
Q

igE

A

immunoglobulin E - involved in allergic reactions. Present on the surface of basophils and mast-cells. Involved in parasitic immunity and allergic reaction. They interact with allergens and by doing so, causes the mast cells to release oxidizing agents and histamines involved in immune and inflammation response.

64
Q

agglutination`

A

a way antibodies can inactivate the invading agent - multiple compounds bound to antigens bind together to form a clump

65
Q

precipitation

A

antibody binds and renders the compound insoluble

66
Q

neutralization

A

antibody covers the toxic site of the antigen

67
Q

lysis

A

some antibodies are capable of directly attacking the membrane of the antigen

68
Q

classical pathway activation

A

Once the antigen-antibody complex is formed, the constant portion of the antibody will then be able to directly activate C1 of the complement system

69
Q

antigen-presenting cells

A

macrophages, B-cells and dendritic cells. Have MHC proteins on their surface

70
Q

IgA

A

~15% of antibodies. Major immunoglobulin in sero-mucus secretion. Ex. through: milk, colostrum, saliva, genito-urinary secretion (present on mucus surfaces)

  • important for providing passive immunity to the offspring while their immune system is developing
  • has 4 binding sites for binding antigens
71
Q

igM

A

10% of circulating Ig. pentameric. One of the first antibodies to arrive - aid in the attack against antigenically complex organisms. They cause agglutinization - complex clumping. Allows the macrophage to recognize easily

72
Q

igD

A

1% of circulating Ig. Major form on the membrane of B-lymphocytes. May play a role in triggering of lymphocyte differentiation – they act like a receptor on the surface of B cells. Once activated by an antigen, they can secrete more antibodies with a similar binding domain!

73
Q

Mannose binding lectin

A

activates the complement system

74
Q

Antibodies

A

There are gamma globulins and consist of 2 light chains and 2 dark chains - light and ark chains are connected by a disulfide bond. Bind to antigens, are formed by plasma cells. aka immunoglobulins. Have a variable fragment antigen binding (Fab) domain and a constant fragment crystalline (Fc) domain. The Fc domain can bind complements, leukocytes host tissue once the Fab domain has been bound and activated by the antigen.

75
Q

epitopes

A

proteins on the surface of the antigen which antibodies can bind to. aka antigenic determinant domain.

76
Q

Helper T cells

A

secrete a number of cytokines once activated. Needed for the immune system to function efficiently. Once activated, helper T cells secrete B-cell proliferation factors. T-cells only recognize antigens when they are bound to MHC proteins on the surface of antigen presenting cells. Helper T cells only bind to MHC ll proteins on antigen presenting cells.
- upon activation, they secrete cytokines and T-cell and B-cell proliferation factors

77
Q

MHC

A

major histocombatibility complex. The MHC proteins bind peptide fragments of antigen proteins that are degraded inside antigen presenting cells and then transport them to the cell surface.

78
Q

Cytotoxic T-cells

A

killer cells. Involved in invader cell destruction. Secrete perforin compound which mediates hole formation in the invading cell. Cytotoxic compounds can then be injected into the invading cell, resulting in a cascade that leads to apoptosis. Particularly by cells infected by a virus. MHC l proteins on antigen presenting cells activate cytotoxic T-cells.

79
Q

Class 1 MHC

A

When on an antigen presenting cell, they activate cytotoxic T-cells. These are found on the surface of all cells except red blood cells

80
Q

Class 2 MHC

A

Only on the surface of macrophages and B-cells. Recognized only by Helper T-cells

81
Q

coreceptors

A

CD4 and CD8. Involved with the restriction of which cells can interact with which. Killer T cells contain coreceptor CD8 activated by antigen presented with Class 1 MHC. Target cell presents antigen with Class 1 MHC. Helper T cells contain coreceptors CD4 - which are activated by antigens present by Class 2 MHC

82
Q

Suppressor T-cells

A

Act as regulatory T-cells. Limits the activity of Helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells. Modulating excessive activity of the immune system.

83
Q

hematocrit

A

percentage of the blood taken up by rbcs. lower than 10% decrease in hematocrit percentage could be lethal

84
Q

colony-forming unit-erythrocyte (CFU-E)

A

committed cells that become erythrocytes

ZOOL 463 (4 decks)

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