Group 5 Flashcards
WORLD WAR II #235
235
Time: 1939 through 1945
What: World War II prompted the U.S. to transition from isolationism to become the “arsenal of democracy,” and then enter the fight to help preserve democracy and help combat the danger of totalitarianism abroad. World War II spurred the call for equality for black Americans and women. World War II was the largest war in history, and represented the last American effort at total war. The way the war ended introduced the nuclear age and set the stage for the Cold War.
Kellogg-Briand Pact #236
236
Time: 1928
What: Signed in Paris, it was a pact that outlawed war (after fears of another war like WWI ran rampant) and was signed by sixty-two nations (the U.S., U.K., France, India, Germany, and Japan just a few). It was a part of the peace movement of the 1920s and the U.S. still had full rights to self-defense. It had little effect on the increase in militarism in the 1930s or preventing WWII (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Selective Service Act of 1940 #237
237
Time: 1940
What: Known as the U.S.’s first peacetime draft, it was a draft that required all men between the ages of 21 and 45 to register for it. This was in response to rising public fear of the Axis powers as they (mainly Germany, Italy, and Japan) were starting to militarily control Europe and East Asia (Defense.gov.
America First Committee #238
238
Time: Formed in 1940
What: An isolationist group that argued the U.S. stay out of foreign wars (specifically the European War {WWII}). It was one of the biggest antiwar organizations in the U.S. and went to Congress to try and sway them, but the U.S. fought in the European War, nevertheless (VisittheCapital.gov) (TeachingAmericanHistory.org).
Lend-Lease Act #239
239
Time: 1941
What: A bill that allowed the U.S. to send arms and supplies (but not soldiers) to any country fighting against the Axis powers that they deemed fit. It was seen as a way for the U.S. to stay out of the war yet fight against the Axis powers. It was passed during Roosevelt’s presidency after Britain requested aid from the U.S. (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Pearl Harbor #240
240
Time: December 7th, 1941
What: Known by President Roosevelt as the “day that will live in infamy,” Pearl Harbor was part of the annexed Hawaii by the U.S. in 1898 and was the used as an American naval base (as of just one year prior). On December 7th, Japanese warplanes attacked Pearl Harbor and the U.S. ships around it, killing 3,000 people. The attack caused the U.S. to become directly involved in WWII (NationalWW2Museum.org) (AmericanPageant).
Rosie the Riveter #241
241
Time: Created in 1942
Who/What: A fictional woman factory worker who was meant to inspire other women to take up men’s prior jobs during WWII, Rosie the Riveter began as a song but soon emerged in images, with the common “We Can Do It!” phrase for her crafted by J. Howard Miller. Rosie is accredited for helping inspire the ~5 million women who took up roles in factories, shipyards, metal-work, etc., showing that women could hold roles in skilled fields. Rosie today is seen as a feminist icon (NPS.org).
Bracero Program #242
242:
Time: 1942 through 1964
What: An agreement between the U.S. and Mexican government that hired temporary Mexican agricultural workers in order to account for the labor shortages due to the war. More than 4 million Mexicans came to work on farms and railroads in the U.S. and- even though there were laws protecting them from discrimination- they were, nevertheless, discriminated against and oft were paid less than others in the U.S. (Guides.LOC.gov) (AmericanPageant).
D-Day #243
243
Time: 1944
What: Known as the “largest amphibious invasion in military history,” D-Day was the military operation in Normandy, France by ~195,000 Allied naval forces and ~133,000 Allied troops where the Allied forces on the Western front and the Russian forces on the Eastern front defeated German Nazi forces. This battle freed France and signaled the ending stages of WWII in Europe (EisenhowerLibrary.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Korematsu v. United States (Japanese Internment Camps), #244
244
Time and Place: Ruled on December 1944 in the Supreme Court
What: Known as one of the Supreme Court’s “most controversial decisions,” the case ruled 6 to 3 that Fred Toyosaburo Korematsu could legally be arrested and interned by the U.S. federal government during WWII. Korematsu, after hearing of Roosevelt’s executive order that all Japanese Americans along the Washington State to California area were to be sent to an internment camp (this was prompted by public fear after Pearl Harbor), he refused the camps and hid in Northern California, where he was arrested and appealed to the Supreme Court. In 1948 property loss was reimbursed, in 1988 a formal apology and $20,000 was given to each survivor of the camps by the U.S. government, and the case was later overturned in 2018 (ConstitutionCenter.org).
GI BIll #245
245
Time: 1944 through 1956
What: Also known as the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act or the GI Bill of Rights, the GI Bill was established by Congress/Roosevelt that addressed the unemployment that the ~15 million servicemen returning from the war would face. So, it secured loans to buy houses, farms, and buildings for establishing businesses as well as providing tuition, supplies, and counseling for veterans to return/continue with their schooling. As a result, the economy did not face a depression and ~3.5 million people under the act received school training and ~3.4 million received job training. Black veterans were not able to reap the full benefits, however (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Holocaust #246
246
Time and Place: 1933 through 1945 in German-Occupied Europe
What: The systematic state-sponsored persecution and murder of 6 million European Jews and millions of other European citizens but the German Nazis and its allies. It fed on years of discrimination and antisemitism and acceptance of violence and was conducted by Adolf Hitler, the SS, and the SA. While the Holocaust ended with the war, the mass amounts of genocide and torture lived on and the world had and has to face it, hold people accountable, and remember it and its victims (Encyclopedia.USHMM.org).
Yalta Conference #247
247
Time: 1945
What: A meeting in a Russian resort town along the Black Sea in Crimea where the Big Three Leaders- Franklin Roosevelt (U.S.), Winston Churchill (U.K.), and Joseph Stalin (Russia)- formed a plan for how the would divide power in Europe. This comprised of dividing Germany and ceding territory to the Soviet Union. It was also decided that Germany should take a significant role in handing war reparations. The decision in the Yalta Conference were celebrated at first but later criticized when the U.S. came into conflict with the Soviet Union’s power (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
United Nations (Creation of) #248
248
Time: Formed in 1945
What: Like the League of Nations but more cognizant of the fact that the peace in the world was mainly ruled over by the Big Five powers (U.K., China, France, Soviet Union, U.S.), the U.N. was created to help ensure another World War would not break out. It established a Security Council of five permanent members (the Big Five) and six non-permanent members. Roosevelt secured two more votes for the U.S. during the Conference, as well. Roosevelt sought bipartisan support for the U.N. in the U.S. and it was approved by Congress (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Dropping of Atomic Bombs on Japan #249
249
Time and Place: 1945 in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan
What: Separated by only three days, the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on first the city of Hiroshima and second the city of Nagasaki. The U.S. had mostly steered clear of Hiroshima before the bombing, so ~330,000 people were present in the city when it was bombed and ~237,000 of them died due to the bomb. Nagasaki wasn’t the primary target of the second bomb but became so due to weather concerns but had already been partially evacuated due to earlier bombings, so ~263,000 people where present when the city was bombed and ~80,000 died. Both towns were completely decimated. The goal of the bombs was supposedly to show off U.S. military might to Japan in order to get it to unconditionally surrender (AHF.NuclearMuseum.org).
COLD WAR #250
250
Time: 1945 through 1989
What: The Cold War led the United States to an internationalist foreign policy based on confrontation and negotiation between 1945 and 1989. Major military struggles ensued between the idealogical forces of democratic capitalism and communism, as the U.S. and USSR became involved, directly and indirectly, in conflicts with Korea, Afghanistan, Cuba, and Vietnam. The Cold War mentality, involving the association of the U.S. with good and the Soviet Union with evil along with the possibility of nuclear annihilation, greatly influenced American society (AFH.NuclearMuseum.org).
President Harry Truman #251
251
Time: 1945 through 1953
Party: Democratic
Who: Born in Missouri Harry Truman was a captain in the Field Artillery in France, a haberdashery owner, a judge of the Jackson county court, a Senator (where he headed the Senate war investigating committee), and the Vice President to Roosevelt. After Roosevelt’s death in-office, Truman assumed the presidency and became the 33rd U.S. President, but he was uninformed on the major conflict with Soviet Russia that was taking place. These problems as well as many other from post-wartime ordeals were handed down to him, and he first ordered the atomic bombs on Japan and then saw the U.N. charter signed. He veered to his own path after this, however, presenting the 21 point program (later referred to as the Fair Deal), sought for support for Turkey and Greece in his Truman Doctrine, created the Berlin air supply, and kept the Korean War a limited one in the U.S.. He decided not to run again and died 19 years later (WhiteHouse.gov).
Containment (George Kennan) #252
252
Time: Established in 1947
What: The policy adopted by the U.S. throughout the Cold War that centered around stopping the spread of the Soviet Union’s communism, as communism was “inherently expansionist.” The ideas of containment was established in George Kennan’s anonymously published “X-Article” and overall affected America’s foreign policy in both military and political aspects (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Berlin Airlift #253
253
Time: 1948 through 1949
What: Berlin, located far inside of Soviet-controlled East Germany, was a part of the Western Allies and- as tensions escalated- Soviet forces blockaded Berlin from Western supplies. This, the U.S. and U.K. began airlifting supplies to Berlin in what became known as the first major crisis of the Cold War. The airlift ended when the blockade on Berlin ended (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Creation of) #254
254
Time: Established in 1949
What: Also known as NATO, it was and is a military alliance between the U.S., Canada, and Western European powers created in order to band together against the Soviet Union. It helped unite Europe and strengthened American internationalism (America coming off of a period of isolationism before WWII). It was confirmed with the signing of the Washington Treaty, and made it so that- if any Allied member (a country in NATO) is attacked, all NATO members are involved (NATO.USMission.gov) (AmericanPageant).
McCarthyism #255
255
Time: Started in the 1950s
What: Based on Senator Joseph R. McCarthy’s accusations against 205 U.S. government officials (as well as many other people) as being Communists, McCarthyism is associated with anti-communism that involves how dangerous biting, baseless accusations of communism can be and the fear that was had by paranoia at the time. It was later used in various other “witch hunts” of the sort (EisenhowerLibrary.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Demilitarized Zone (Korea) #256
256
Time: 1953 to the Present
What: Known as the DMZ, it is a 150-mile-long stretch of land approximately along the 38th parallel that demarcates North and South Korea. It was created at the end of the Korean War and is surrounded by ~1.2 miles on either side of uninhabited territory (where wildlife flourishes). The zone is heavily fortified even though not many conflicts occur there. The “truce village” of P’anmunjon located within the DMZ was the site of several conferences relating to North and South Korea and relations with other countries (History.com).
Israel (Creation of the Nation of) #257
257
Time: 1948
What: While there was prior established a Jewish national home in Palestine, President Roosevelt had wanted a separate state for Palestinian Jews but promised to discuss with both Palestinian Jews and Palestinian Arabs. The British, who had a colonial mandate for Palestine until it expired in 1948, were opposed to the issue. Soon after Truman came into the presidency, he created a board on the matter and Resolution 181 was adopted, saying the the religious significance of Jerusalem would remain administered by the U.N.. While the U.S. was wary about the establishment of the state for fear of losing Arab oil supply and there was growing conflict between the Arabs and Jews in Palestine, the U.N. passed the Partition Resolution and the U.S. recognized Israel as a state (History.State.gov).
Dixiecrats #258
258
Time: 1948
Who: Conservative southern white Democrats who formed the States’ Rights Democratic Party as a protest against President Harry Truman supporting civil rights (and his influence of these values in the Democratic Party). They were opposed to the Federal Government intervening into States’ rights by desegregating armed forces and other aspects of communities, and supported white supremacy and the continuation of the Jim Crow Laws. Mostly, though, they were afraid of the political and social power that African Americans could achieve if given more equal rights. They had one meeting and elected S.C.’s Strom Thurmond for the Presidential ballot on their behalf and, even though he- clearly- didn’t win, the Dixiecrats played a role in separating the formerly all-Democratic “Solid South” (DP.LA).
Baby Boom #259
259
Time: 1946 through 1964
What: A “demographic explosion” caused by the births of children from returning soldiers (and others) as they came back from the war. This prompted the advancement of many systems, primarily education. At one time there were ~76.4 baby boomers in the U.S., comprising of ~40% of the American population (History.com) (AmericanPageant).
Sunbelt #260
260
Time: During and the Decades After WWII
What: The crescent of fifteen states in the American South/Southwest that experienced major population, political, and industrial growth, rivaling the “Frostbelt” of the Northeast (known prior for booming industries). This expansion was mostly due to federal spending, reduced taxes and wages, weakening unions, air conditioning, and desegregation (DigitalHistory.UH.edu) (AmericanPageant).
President Dwight D. Eisenhower #261
261
Time: 1953 through 1961
Party: Republican
Who: Born in Texas, stationed as a second lieutenant there, Commander of the Allied Forces in North Africa in 1942 and Supreme Commander during the D-Day operation, President of Columbia University and the head of the new assembly of NATO forces in 1951, Dwight D. Eisenhower was a prominent figure both internationally and globally even before his Presidency. Once he won the 34th Presidency, Eisenhower “Ike” first helped establish a treaty between North and South Korea, and then helped the U.S. navigate (with Russia) the extents of the hydrogen bombs. He also sent federal troops to enforce desegregation in schools, and ordered for the Armed Forces to be fully desegregated, as well. Before his Presidency’s end, Eisenhower gave loans of uranium to smaller nations for peaceful purposes and urged maintaining a strong military, but not one that would grow to overwhelm. He died in 1969 on his farm in Gettysburg (WhiteHouse.gov).
Interstate Highway System #262
262
Time: 1956
What: Called the “Greatest Public Works Project in History,” the interstate highway system was established by the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956 (signed by Eisenhower) and construction began soon after. The system came to be one of the most influential developments in the U.S. as most everything shipment wise is taken over a highway. Also, the system caused a tremendous increase in transportation ease- and, therefore, greater expansion into new lands- to increase (FHWA.DOT.gov).
Brown v. Board of Education, #263
263
Time and Place: 1954 in the Supreme Court
What: A court case with one of the biggest impacts on American society, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas overturned Plessy v. Ferguson (saying segregation was not violating the 14th Amendment) by arguing that equal could never be achieved by “separate but equal.” It also was one of the first major decisions against the Jim Crow laws and for the end of racial discrimination. Even though the decision received heavy criticism, it was a major win for the Civil Rights movement (and was enforced by those who favored judicial activism) and continues to inspire today (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Little Rock Nine #264
264
Time: 1957
Who: After Brown v. Board of Education, schools were still reluctant to desegregate (for pressure by the community and internal influence). Immediately following the case, Little Rock’s Central high school announced its desegregation policy, but it would be three years later before anyone would enact it. The Little Rock Nine were nine high-school-aged African American students who were the first African Americans to attend the high school. At their first and second attempts at entry, they were kept out by the state’s National Guard (called by Arkansas’ mayor) and many protestors. After a federal judged ordered the State’s National Guard removed, the Little Rock Nine were escorted by the police and U.S. Army troops and were able to attend classes. They were still frequently met with discrimination, hatred, and bullying from their community and their classmates, but they persisted in their fight and call for change. The nine ended up inspiring the Supreme Court’s decision in Cooper v. Aaron (1958) (NMAAHC.SI.edu).
Montgomery Bus Boycott #265
265
Time: 1955 through 1956
What: After Rosa parks defiantly did not give up her seat on a city bus, black Alabamians began protesting for over a year against segregation on city busses. This boycott was a fight for justice (with King’s house bombed at one point, even) and was one of the foundational acts of the Civil Rights movement and inspired major leaders like Martin Luther King Jr.. The boycott in Montgomery ended once the Supreme Court passed Browder v. Gayle stating that bus segregation is against the Constitution (KingInstitute.Standford.edu) (AmericanPageant).
Massive Resistance #266
266
Time: 1956 through 1968
What: The political strategy employed by many (especially in the Southern States) that argued for no desegregation in schools after the ruling in the Brown v. Board of Education case. Massive Resistance was introduced by Senator Harry Byrd and included a set of laws that would prolong segregation, including ideas such as eliminating the state funds of any school who desegregates and making attendance at schools optional. Massive Resistance was one of many movements in the South against desegregation in schools (NAACPLDF.org).
Elvis Presley #267
267
Time: 1935 through 1977
Who: Called the “King of Rock and Roll,” Elvis Presley was born in Mississippi and was influenced heavily by gospel music at an early age. After RCA Records signed him, he began putting out songs such as his #1 single “Heartbreak Hotel” and went out to release a #1 album. He won three Grammy awards and was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, Country Music Hall of Fame, and a Gospel Music Hall of Fame. The Ed Sullivan Show gave him his most kickstart to superstardom and he was also commonly seen on various movies. He was drafted and served in Germany for about a year and a half, where he met Priscilla, whom he married later. Their marriage soon fell apart though, and Priscilla received custody of their daughter, Lisa Marie Presley. At the age of 42, he died due to a heart failure (most likely caused by his drug addiction). Elvis resembles a big shift in the cultural world of America as music was coming to the forefront of it. Today, Elvis is still an icon of Rock and Roll and his music continues to carry on his legacy (Biography.com).
Jonas Salk #268
268
Time: 1914 through 1995
Who: Born in NYC to Russian-Jewish immigrants who pushed their children to have a good education, he was the first in his family to go to college. He attended medical School at NYU and was invited to research influenza, and- after finishing medical school- he helped develop the first vaccine for influenza. He then went on to work at the University of Pittsburgh Medical School and, after seeing an opportunity, devoted himself to work on the polio vaccine (which ended up being an eight year venture). He succeeded in this task in 1955, even deciding not to patent the vaccine so that it could be disseminated freely. He then went on to write many books (some with his son{s}) and spent the rest of his life trying to develop an AIDS vaccine. He died at the age of 80 and his wife, Françoise Gilot, passed away 28 years later (Achievement.org).
Sputnik #269
269
Time: 1957
What: A Soviet satellite that was the first human-made object put into orbit and being able to orbit the earth in 90 minutes, signaling not only a huge shift in the technological world but also fears from Americans about Soviet domination in the Space Race (fears became quite prevalent after a bigger Sputnik II was launched by the Society Union). This all played into the larger Cold War however, as it only increased tensions (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
President John F. Kennedy #270
270
Time: 1961 through 1963
Party: Democratic
Who: Born of Irish descent in Massachusetts in 1917, John F. Kennedy was a Harvard graduate, fearless Navy solider, a U.S. Senator, a Pulitzer Prize winner, and, eventually, the youngest President and first Roman-Catholic President of the United States, winning after intense debates with Nixon. During his 35th Presidency, his primary goal was to “get America moving again” and he spent most of it establishing economic plans that targeted poverty and the disadvantaged. He also was a strong advocate for Civil Rights and a great national culture. While expanding these aspects, Kennedy allowed Cuban exiles to invade Cuba (trying and failing to overthrow Fidel Castro) and reinforced Berlin against the Soviet Union (after the wall had been built). Kennedy helped calm the Cuban Missile Crisis and develop the test ban treaty of 1963. He was killed assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald before his term expired (WhiteHouse.gov).
Peace Corps #271
271
Time: Created in 1961
What: Created by President Kennedy in his New Frontier Vision, the Peace Corps is a federal agency that prompts Americans in foreign countries to volunteer to help develop various aspects- health care, educational systems, infrastructure, etc.- of that country (especially those countries that are increasingly disadvantaged or still growing). The Peace Corps became a federal agency after the U.S. saw the Soviet Union doing a program similar and postwar liberals wanted to both match theirs and help out others around the world. The first leader of the Peace Corps was John F. Kennedy’s brother-in-law, R. Sargent Shriver, and- thanks to his work- the program is still continuing today and encouraging productive exchanges (JFKLibrary.org) (AmericanPageant).
Berlin Wall (Erection of) #272
272
Time: 1961 (through 1989)
What: The embattled and secured wire and concrete wall separating East Berlin from West Berlin. East Germany’s Communist government built the wall (ordered by the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev) to keep out the capitalists or “fascists” of West Germany (when, in actuality, it just turned more Easterners towards the West’s values). It remained with hatred for it on either side, until it was eventually said by the East German government that it could be taken down (due to new policies on border crossings) (History.com) (AmericanPageant).
Cuban Missile Crisis #273
273
Time: 1962
What: Pushing the idea of nuclear confrontation to the forefront, the Cuban Missile Crisis was a face-off between John F. Kennedy and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev about the Soviet’s trying to house nuclear weapons in Cuba. The crisis was averted, however, as the U.S. secretly agreed to remove their own missiles from Turkey if the Soviet Union would not launch missiles from Cuba, and the Soviet Union announced publicly it would be removing missiles from Cuba. So, it ended up in America’s favor and put Kennedy in a good light both in America and internationally (History.State.gov) (AmericanPageant).
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT #274
274
Time: 1954 through 1968
What: The “Separate but Equal” doctrine of segregation was dismantled beginning in 1954. Early civil rights leaders and organizations focused on ending inequality and discrimination using nonviolent protest and legal action, while the rise of Black nationalism, separatism, and violence evidenced continuing frustration with slow or partial change. Disillusionment with the increasingly violent protest of the 1960’s led to the entrenchment of a conservative ideology between 1968 and 1992. The student movement, anti-war demonstrations, and women’s and gay rights movement of the late 20th century all borrowed from the movement for black civil rights.
Greensboro Sit-ins #275
275
Time: 1960
What: Inspired by the Freedom Riders and the brutal death of an innocent 14-year-old named Emmett Till, the Greensboro Sit-ins began with a group of four young Black men- Ezell Blair Jr., David Richmond, Franklin McCain, and Joseph McNeil, all from the N.C. Agricultural and Technical college- who organized a peaceful protest against the Woolworth’s restaurant in Greensboro, N.C.. These men- the Greensboro Four- remained peacefully at the restaurant (known for only serving white people) and had called in media coverage, where there sit-in was broadcasted across America. After this, the sit-in movement picked up nationwide, with more than 300 people coming to Woolworth’s and other sit-ins in 55 cities across 13 states. These sit ins caused many more businesses than before to become integrated (especially in the South) and its nonviolence inspired the Freedom Riders and many others (History.com).
Malcolm X #276
276
Time: Alive 1925 through 1965
Who: Malcolm X was born in Nebraska, moving to Michigan because of threats form white supremacists against his family and he entered a foster home after his father had been killed by the Black Legionaries and his mother had a nervous breakdown. Even though he was highly intelligent, he dropped out of school after 8th grade and began dealing drugs, sending him to prison, the place where he first heard about the Lost-Found Nation of Islam. After hearing the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, he changed his last name to X and- after he spent his six years in prison- went on to teach at Mosque No. 7 in Harlem where he grew the number of Nation of Islam followers from 400 to 40,000. He and the Nation of Islam “identified white people as the devil” and sought for justice- through any means necessary (putting him at odds with MLK Jr.). Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam in 1963 and went to Mecca and underwent a spiritual transformation (even changing his name) and saw anger as a fatal flaw. In 1964, he founded the Organization of Afro-American unity which saw racism, not the white race, as the “enemy of justice.” He was assassinated in 1965, though his death and life were both highly influential in the Civil Rights movement (History.com).
1963 March on Washington #277
277
Time: August 1963
What: Initiated by A. Philip Randolph as he got some of the most prominent organizations in civil rights and workers rights (NAACP, National Urban League, UAW, etc.) to commit to attend, the March on Washington was a huge civil rights demonstration that argued for a strict federal bill pertaining to Civil Rights for American Blacks from the Kennedy administration. The March was attended by a wide variety of people but was not supported by some (like Malcolm X) who thought it too lenient of a protest. Martin Luther King Jr. said his famous “I Have a Dream” speech during this event, as well. Overall, the March prompted the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (KingInstitute.Stanford.edu) (AmericanPageant).
President Lyndon B. Johnson #278
278
Time: 1963 through 1969
Party: Democratic
Who: Born in Texas and teaching at a local college, Lyndon B. Johnson learned compassion for people in poverty as he taught. He soon became a member of the House, a lieutenant commander in WWII, a senator (the youngest Minority and Majority leader in Senate history), and a Vice President to John F. Kennedy. After Kennedy’s assassination, Johnson as the 36th President helped finish what Kennedy started, getting a new civil rights bill and a tax cut enacted. After he was re-elected, he proposed the Great Society program which Congress (for the most part) helped to fulfill (this also included the 1965 Medicare amendment). He also sought to use his power against segregation. Before his Presidency’s end, Johnson helped resolve the Communist aggression in Viet Nam (even not running for President again to dedicate his full attention on the matter). He had a heart attack four years later and passed away on his Texas ranch (WhiteHouse.gov).
Civil Rights Act of 1964 #279
279
Time: 1964
What: A Federal bill under the Johnson administration that “prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin,” helping the fight to end segregation in schools and have access for public facilities for all, as well as mandating equal-opportunity hiring/job processes (empowering the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission). It, in addition, strengthened the Amendment of voting rights for all. The act went finally ended the legal application of the Jim Crow laws and the “Separate but Equal” notion, and was amended later by Congress to have a stronger enforcement of ending discrimination (DOL.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Voting Rights Act of 1965 #280
280
Time: 1965
What: Striving to end racial disenfranchisement, the bill was enacted by Congress (with support from President Johnson) in order to make illegal any means that would prohibit someone from voting, such as literacy tests or intimidation. It was an enforcer of the fifteenth amendment and immediately received harsh feedback from states but, nevertheless, by the end of the year over a quarter of a million new Black voters had registered. The Act was readopted and strengthened (or changed) four times (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
“Long Hot Summers” #281
281
Time: Around and During 1965
What: A series times in which an uprising was enacted due to racism and discrimination of Black people. A main part of the Long Hot Summers was- after a man in L.A. named Marquette Frye was forced to get out of his car by a police officer and then had a gun pulled on him- was a five day long bedlam of burning, looting, and rioting that killed 34 people and caused $40 million in damages. Others- spurred by events like these, poor treatment and living conditions throughout their lives, and the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.- broke out in many northern urban areas. They eventually fizzled out after the Kerner Commission helped many victimized African Americans and Johnson enacted his Great Society Program (USHistory.org).
Black Panthers #282
282
Time: 1966 through 1982
What: Calling for a new approach to the Civil Rights movement after the Civil and Voting Rights acts, the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense was inspired by Malcolm X’s teachings of the Nation of Islam, teachings of the Communist Party of China, and The Wretched of the Earth book, and focused on Black “nationalism, socialism, and armed self-defense, particularly against police brutality.” It was founded in Oakland, California by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale and housed the Ten Point Platform, with points such as freedom and full employment for the Black Community, decent shelter, all Black men exempt from military service, and a trial with a jury of peers from the Black Community, among other points. The Black Panthers were targeted by the FBI but did provide meals for school children, adult education, sickle cell anemia screening, and legal aid (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Great Society #283
283
Time: 1964 through 1968
What: The domestic policy agenda of President Lyndon Johnson that fought for Civil Rights for all people as well as fighting poverty. The War on Poverty was a program within the Great Society, creating Medicare (for the aged) and Medicaid (for the poor). Laws shielding consumers and uplifting community organizations were also enacted in the hopes of tackling poverty. The Great Society was deemed a “successor to the New Deal” and- with Congress’ support- also aided in developments in education, disease prevention, conservation, beautification, control on crime, and voting rights (ObamaWhiteHouse.Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
Affirmation Action #284
284
Time: Began in 1965
What: A program trying to eliminate racial and gender discriminating in jobs and education. It come from Johnson’s mandate that projects paid for by federal funds should go to extra lengths to ensure there be no discrimination in its execution. In the late 1960s, the Philadelphia Plan by President Nixon amended the Affirmative Action meaning, it then being changed to mean that certain groups receive the attention, rather than shielding individuals from discrimination. As time progressed, many aspects of Affirmative Action have been altered or challenged by the Supreme Court and it altogether was rolled back in 2023 (History.com) (AmericanPageant).
Rachel Carson/Silent Spring #285
285
Time: Alive 1907 through 1964 and Book Published in 1962
Who/What: Rachel Carson, raised in Pennsylvania with a love for both nature and writing, was a marine biologist with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. She wrote many educational brochures for FWS as well as other books and articles, all crafted through much research and profound poetry. Her book, Silent Spring, was prompted after many years of hearing about the harmful affects of DDT (a synthetic insecticide) on nature, and was about the dangerous and deadly affects on DDT for animals and nature, with the most famous part of the book a chapter where a whole town is silenced by DDT. The book, though controversial (DDT helped kill large numbers of insects which helped for more mass-production of crops as well as helping civilians wipe out insects) picked up recognition and caused harsher speculation for DDT, even calling DDT to the attention of John F. Kennedy. Carson’s 55 pages of notes and numerous certified scientist backings held strong, and the President’s Science Advisory Committee proved the tellings in the book to be true and, hence, DDT was banned in America (NRDC.org).
Cesar Chavez #286
286
Time: Alive 1927 through 1993
Who: Born to Mexican American migrants in Arizona, Cesar Chavez dropped out of school after 8th grade and began working on his family’s farm. Inspired by his community and events such as the Delano Grape Strike of 1965, he soon began advocating for farmworker’s rights as well as civil liberties for Mexicans and Mexican-Americans. Chavez led a 340-mile march from Delano to Sacramento and took several hunger strikes to make the small pay and poor working conditions of him and his counterparts known, as well as advocating for pesticide awareness. Chavez inspired millions of people- not just farmworkers- to recognize and support “social, economic, and civil rights activism.” He was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton (Diversity.Sonoma.edu).
Betty Friedan and The Feminine Mystique #287
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Time: Alive 1921 through 2006 and Book Published in 1963
Who/What: Betty Friedan, born in Illinois, was a gifted student who graduated top of her class and attended an elite women’s institution (Smith College). After seeing how women were loosing their jobs to men after they returned from WWII and how all of her classmates at Smith College had turned from women with high spirits and ambitions to homemakers, she felt she was “meant to do more” and began writing The Feminine Mystique. The book shook America- especially American women- to its core. It, during a time where contemplations on rights and justice were at the forefront, gave voice to women’s cry for more than suburban housewifery. Friedan helped establish the National Organization for Women and the passing of the Equal Rights Amendment (which latter fizzled out due to conservative backlash). She and her book prompted what would become second-wave feminism (BillofRightsInstitute.org) (AmericanPageant).
National Organization for Women #288
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Time: Established in 1966
What: Established by Betty Friedan, Catherine Conroy, and 14 other women who attend a late-night hotel meeting and pledged to be a part of the movement, the National Organization for Women (NOW) was and is based on enforcing Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, prohibiting discrimination in the workplace. After electing Friedan as NOW’s first president, the organization went on to hold pickets, protest, and march on subjects of equal workplace rights, sexual assault, power-dynamics, and women’s reproductive health care options, among other things. NOW is still now active and is the largest organization of women’s rights activists in the U.S. (ObamaWhiteHouse.Archives.gov).
Phyllis Schlafly #289
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Time: Alive 1924 through 2016
Who: Born in Missouri the daughter of a machinist/salesman and a teacher/librarian, Phyllis Schlafly attended a Catholic High School, graduated from Harvard, and later pursued (and obtained) a law degree. Schlafly was an advocator for the grassroots anticommunist cause and was head of a conservative political interest group. She cited her primary job as “mother,” however, as she had six kids. So, when the Equal Rights Amendment was due to be renewed (and was very close to being so), she felt that legislations on equality and women’s rights had already gone far enough and felt that the ERA would lend its way to support abortion, gay marriage, and other issues which she and her supporters deemed not part of their “family values.” She and her followers aided in the end of the ERA. Even to her death, Schlafly was firmly anti-gay marriage, anti-feminist, anti-immigration, anti-arms control agreements, and anti-globalization (WomensHistory.org).
Equal Rights Amendment #290
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Time: First Proposed in 1923 but Almost Ratified in 1972
What: The Equal Rights Amendment was a law that stated full constitution equality for women. It strove (and strives) to eliminate legal distinction between men and women for matters such as employment, divorce, and property rights. While it was close to becoming a part of the Constitution, a influential grassroots campaign led by Phyllis Schlafly convinced enough state legislatures to not support it, to where it lost ratification by only three states. There are still advocates for the Equal Rights Amendment being passed today, and many states have already ratified it (Archives.gov) (AmericanPageant).
American Indian Movement #291
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Time: Founded in 1968
What: The American Indian Movement (AIM)- a grassroots Indigenous rights movement established in Minnesota- was developed by Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt (two Ojibwa men) in response to police brutality against Native Americans and the federal “Termination Policy” that made legal the assimilation of Native Americans into U.S. cities. AIM soon created the AIM Patrol, overseeing how Native Americans were treated by police and courts. Their protests such as the Trail of Broken Treaties helped prompt Congress to pass the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. AIM split in 1993 into two locations and and is still active today (History.com).
Stonewall Riots #292
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Time: 1969
What: After the police raided a gay club called Stonewall Inn (owned by the Mafia and illegally operating as they were without many basic restaurant facilities) in New York City and handled those within the bar to the point of harassment, the people in Greenwich Village were finally fed up with being mistreated and caused a full-blown riot, lasting over five days with sometimes thousands of people in attendance. The Stonewall Riots caused greater LGBTQ+ awareness, activism, and protest through verbal or violent manners and progressed the sexual revolution of the late 1960s (History.com) (AmericanPageant).
Tonkin Gulf Resolution #293
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Time: 1964 through 1971
What: In response to two U.S. ships being attacked in the Gulf fo Tonkin near North Vietnam and President Johnson sending out U.S. planes in retaliation, Johnson wanted federal support of this reaction and received it when Congress passed the Tonkin Gulf Resolution almost unanimously. The Resolution stated that the U.S. can combat against armed attack and prevent aggression by whatever means, and President Johnson and President Nixon both used this Resolution as support for their military policies in Vietnam. It turns out, though, that the attacks to the two U.S. ships were provoked by the U.S. (contrary to what Johnson had been told) and public disapproval for the Resolution was large. It was later repealed (Archives.gov).
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) #294
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Time: 1961 through 1974
What: Founded by Tom Hayden as a campus-based political organization, the SDS were advocates of the New Left, meaning “participatory democracy,” a rejection of hierarchy and bureaucracy, and a support of civil rights, antipoverty, and antiwar (to which they were highly prominent activists in the topics). The SDS organized marches, had members flee to Vietnam in protest of the war, and tried to put together an interracial stand. With some members of the party upset at the “slow pace” of the party, however, it dissolved in a battle between moderates and radicals. Even today, though, the SDS has a resounding impact for the Civil Rights movement and in bringing up moral issues (DigitalHistory.UH.edu) (AmericanPageant).
The “Counter-Culture” (of the 1960’s) #295
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Time: Most Prominent in the 1960s and 1970s
What: A movement that consisted of social activists known as “hippies” that were against societal norms, commercialism, and violence (especially wars). A big representation of the culture would have been seen in Woodstock or in the band called Psychedelic Rock. They supported experimenting with Marijuana and LSD, bright colored-clothing oft bought from yard sales and thrift stores, and peace & love. They became an example of how the society was becoming more aware of individual personalities flourishing and norms being broken (Digilab.Libs.UGA.edu).
Tet Offensive #296
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Time: 1968
What: The North Vietnamese Attack on the Lunar New Year (or “Tet” holiday) on cities in South Vietnam, especially those with heavy U.S. troops present. These attacks showed those in the U.S. that the North Vietnamese army was not as weak as previously thought and, even though the U.S. and South Vietnam eliminated almost all of the North Vietnamese forces and regained the lost territories, there were heavy casualties on both sides with both claiming victory. Thus, support for the Johnson Administration was weakened in America as the victory in Vietnam was not as decisive as it had been made seem and, even though Johnson banned bombing of North Vietnam above the 20th parallel and limited U.S. troops in South Vietnam, protests in the U.S. kept raging. Johnson declared he would not run for a second term and thus the decisions about the Vietnam War were left to Richard Nixon (History.State.gov).
My Lai Massacre #297
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Time: March, 1968
What: The murder of hundreds of unarmed Vietnamese civilians (a majority women and children) by American soldiers under the command of 2nd Lieutenant William Calley in the Vietnamese Village of My Lai. Calley supposedly received orders to “get rid” of the villagers of the town (who were brought out before the soldiers beforehand with none of them men of solider-age), though it seems as though Calley just did what was most convenient for him at the time, as he spared them no mercy in how they were killed. The killing ended when Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson- flying overhead- landed his helicopter between the soldiers and the civilians. The war crime brought upon fury towards the U.S. (a lot of that being from its own citizens), especially after the event was tried to be- and failed to be- covered up (what actually happened was revealed in November of the next year). The Vietnamese War lost support both in America and all around the world (ArmyHistory.org) (AmericanPageant).
