Grant (1998) Context dependent memory Flashcards
area
cognitive
assumptions
- Behaviour is the result of internal mental processes, e.g. memory, attention and thinking.
- Behaviour is the result of our mind working like a computer – information is input, stored and retrieved.
background summary
Cues - Memories are connected to other pieces of information, which act as a trigger to our memory, e.g. smells, pieces of music, who you were with, colours, emotional state.
Context-dependency - when you encode the information along with any environmental information, which then act as a cue for recall (and hence improves it).
Godden & Baddeley (1975) – aimed to see whether words are remembered best when recalled in the same environment they were learnt. 18 divers were given word list to learn – either on the beach or 15 feet under the sea. Lists learnt underwater were recalled considerably better when recalled underwater. Lists learnt on land were recalled considerably better when recalled on land. 40% more words were forgotten if recall took place in a different environment!
Recall - accessing memory with little prompts.
Recognition - deciding if we have seen something before from possible options.
aim
To test the effect of noise as a source of context on the studying and retrieval of meaningful material in an academic context. A focus on changing learning context was important as students can chose where to study but not where they are tested.
method
Lab experiment with independent measures design
IV = whether the study and test conditions were matching or mismatching.
DV = Recall (10 SAQ) and recognition (16 MCQ).
sample
39 participants.
Aged 17-56 years
17 females, 23 males (results from one participant were excluded).
Opportunity sampling - members of a psychology laboratory class served as experimenters with each experimenter recruiting (five) acquaintances to serve as participants.
procedure
Each experimenter provided headphones to all participants which were worn throughout the experiment (even those in silent conditions). The eight cassettes used were exact copies made from a master tape of background noise recorded during lunchtime in a university cafeteria (e.g. occasional distinct words embedded withing a general conversational hum + noise of moving tables and chairs). Each participant was asked to read a two-page article on Psychoimmunology. Participants were asked to read the given article once + they could highlight and underline as they read (reading times were recorded). A break of 2 minutes between study and testing phase was used to minimise recall from short term memory. Participants were then asked to answer 10 SAQ questions first followed by 16 MCQ questions to ensure that recall of information from the article was being tested and not recall of information from MCQs.
results
Context-dependency: There was an interaction between learning and test conditions showing that studying and testing in the same environment produced better results. Noise: There was no overall effect of noise on performance as long as studying and testing was done in noisy conditions. Reading time: Individual differences in reading time but no significant differences between conditions.
conclusions
Context-dependency Context-dependency does affect memory (for MCQ & SAQ) and therefore you should study in similar conditions to your exams!
Studying in a noisy environment There was no independent effect of noise on performance, the claim that students make that noise does not hinder their ability to study is supported.
ethical guidelines broken
deception (not telling them the aim)
ethical guidelines adhered to
- confidentiality
- informed consent
- right to withdraw
- debrief
Identify 1 similarity and 1 difference between the two studies investigating the same key theme.
[P] Both studies are similar since they have used a lab experiment. [E] This means that the IV was manipulated, DV measured and the whole research was controlled. [E1] For example, L+P manipulated the IV by using different verbs (smashed, hit, bumped, collided, contacted), measured DV (estimation of speed) and controlled all conditions (for example, using the same 7 driver safety videos). [E2] Similarly, Grant manipulated the IV (matching/mismatching conditions), DV was measured (score on the MCQ and SAQ tests) and controlled all conditions (for example, always using SAQ before MCQs).
[P] One difference between the studies is level of control, [E] which could affect the internal validity of the study and whether the cause and effect is established. [E1] For example, L+P had a very high level of control with very little room for extraneous variables – filler questions were used to hide critical question, participants weren’t told the full aim, same videos of a car crash were used for each participant, which meant that internal validity was really high. [E2] Grant had high level of control too (e.g. 2 minutes break, SAQs always before MCQs etc.), however he didn’t control reading time, which meant that although participants were asked to read an article only once, some of them could have been re-reading the lines as they were going through the article. This would lower internal validity.
applications
Useful as students can use this information to improve their exam performance.
- Police questioning, e.g. context-reinstatement (like taking witnesses back to the crime scene)
How does the core study link to area/perspective?
[A] Behaviour is the result of mental processes. [L] Grant et al studied the effect of context (matched or mismatched) on the memory of factual information and showed that matched conditions enhance memory/performance on both recall and recognition tests. [E] Those students who performed the task/test in silence-silence or noise-noise were better than those who performed the task/test in silence-noise or noise- silence, suggesting that noise has no independent effect on recall as long as the conditions are matching.
[A] Behaviour is the result of our mind working like a computer – information is input, stored and retrieved. [L] Grant links to cognitive psychology because psychoimmunology article along with matched or mismatched condition were input and stored, which resulted in enhanced memory during retrieval if conditions were the same for task and test. [E] Those students who performed the task/test in silence-silence or noise-noise were better than those who performed the task/test in silence-noise or noise-silence.
how does the core study link to the key theme?
39 American students took part in memory study (one was omitted from the analysis) and read the Psychoimmunology article in either silent or noisy conditions and answered some SAQ and MCQ related to the article in either matching or mismatching conditions.
Grant et al shows the enhancing effects of studying and being tested in matching environments over mismatching ones (silence-noise or noise-silent). They also demonstrate that noise has no independent effect i.e. noise does not disturb concentration, so noise-noise students performed similarly to silent-silent students. However, as exams will be taken in silence, for maximum performance, students should study in silence also. This is useful for students to consider their revision techniques and perhaps consider revising in conditions more similar to those in the exam.
To what extent does the contemporary study change understanding of the key theme?
Grant adds to our understanding of the key theme ‘memory’.
While Loftus and Palmer investigate the effect of post-event information and reconstruction of memory (impairment), Grant looks at context-dependent memory (improvement).
He found that recall is better if the conditions during test (e.g. silence) match the conditions during recall (also silent). What is more, noise alone has no effect on memory, providing that conditions of test and recall are matching.
He also adds to our understanding since he tested memory in a sample with wide age range (17-56) and found cross gender effects (23 males, 17 females) whereas from L & P we do not know their age or gender information.
ethnocentrism
+ Cognitive psychology tends not to be too ethnocentrically biased as the idea is that key cognitive functions i.e. memories are universal across cultures – species specific behaviour.
- However, the context part might be, e.g. cultural differences in classrooms/exam rooms.
population validity
+ good age and gender spread.
- All American + acquaintances of experimenters – biased.
reliability
+ Use of objective, quantitative data – SAQ and MCQ scores.
+ Standardised and controlled, for example 2-minute break to avoid recall from short term memory.
- Reading time wasn’t controlled.
internal validity
+ Highly controlled: SAQs always before MCQs, 2 minutes break between reading and answering Qs, same Psychoimmunology article, tested individually. + No order effects since independent measures design
- Independent measures, so participant variables? - Reading time wasn’t controlled therefore some could read things more than once.
- Demand characteristics since friends of the experimenter – screw you effect?
