Grammar Terms Flashcards
Grammar
grammar - the whole system and structure of a language or of languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics.
Noun
noun: a person, place, thing, quality, or idea. ( toad, anxiety, glee )
a word (other than a pronoun) used to identify any of a class of people, places, or things (common noun), or to name a particular one of these (proper noun).
Adjective
adjective: a descriptive word that names an attribute of a noun, it always modifies a noun or pronoun. (green, pretty, hard)
Absolute adjectives
absolute adjectives: adjectives that have no comparative or superlative forms because they express a quality you either have or you don’t. ( full, perfect, dead )
Pronoun
pronoun: a word that stands in for a noun. There are several classes of pronouns: personal ( she, it ); relative ( that, which ); interrogative or question ( what, which ); indefinite ( both, each, any, many ); demonstrative ( these, those ); reflexive or mirror ( itself, yourself, themselves ).
a good word that can function as a noun phrase used by itself and that refers either to the participants in the discourse (e.g. I, you) or to someone or something mentioned elsewhere in the discourse (e.g. she, it, this).
Verb
verb - a word used to describe an action, state, or occurrence, and forming the main part of the predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, happen.
Adverb
adverb: a descriptive word that always modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb. (quickly, often, sadly)
Personal pronoun
personal pronoun
▸ noun each of the pronouns in English (I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, and them) comprising a set that shows contrasts of person, gender, number, and case.
The correct use of personal pronouns is one of the most debated areas of English usage. I, we, they, he, and she are subjective personal pronouns, which means they are used as the subject of the sentence, often coming before the verb (she lives in Paris; we are leaving). Me, us, them, him, and her, on the other hand, are objective personal pronouns, which means that they are used as the object of a verb or preposition (John hates me; his father left him; I did it for her). This explains why it is not correct to say John and me went to the shops: the personal pronoun is in subject position, so it must be I not me. Using the pronoun alone makes the incorrect use obvious: me went to the shops is clearly not acceptable. This analysis also explains why it is not correct to say he came with you and I: the personal pronoun is governed by a preposition (with) and is therefore objective, so it must be me not I. Again, a simple test for correctness is to use the pronoun alone: he came with I is clearly not acceptable. (See also usage at between.) Where a personal pronoun is used alone without the context of a verb or a preposition, however, the traditional analysis starts to break down. Traditionalists sometimes argue, for example, that she’s younger than me and I’ve not been here as long as her are incorrect and that the correct forms are she’s younger than I and I’ve not been here as long as she. This is based on the assumption that than and as are conjunctions and so the personal pronoun is still subjective even though there is no verb (in full form it would be she’s younger than I am). Yet for most native speakers the supposed ‘correct’ form does not sound natural at all and is almost never used in speech. It would perhaps be more accurate to say that, in modern English, those personal pronouns listed above as being objective are used neutrally—i.e. they are used in all cases where the pronoun is not explicitly subjective. From this it follows that, despite the objections of prescriptive grammarians (whose arguments are based on Latin rather than English), it is standard accepted English to use any of the following: Who is it? It’s me!; she’s taller than him; I didn’t do as well as her.
Preposition
preposition: a word showing a relationship of time or space, used to start prepositional phrases. ( to the floor, after the fall)
a word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun and expressing a relation to another word or element in the clause, as in ‘the man on the platform’, ‘she arrived after dinner’, ‘what did you do it for?’.
Conjunction
conjunction: a word that joins words, phrases, or clauses together. Common conjunctions are and, but, because, and yet.
a word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate words in the same clause (e.g. and, but, if).
Predicate
predicate: the part of the sentence that is not the subject. Includes the verb and descriptive phrases.
the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject (e.g. went home in John went home).
Subject
subject: the main noun of the sentence (the noun that does the action), along with any words or phrases that modify the main noun. ( She walks.)
a noun or noun phrase functioning as one of the main components of a clause, being the element about which the rest of the clause is predicated.
Impersonal pronoun
impersonal pronoun
▸ noun the pronoun it when used without definite reference or antecedent, as in it was snowing and it seems hard to believe.
Phrase
phrase: a group of words that can function as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The four main kinds of phrases are prepositional phrases, infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases.
a small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a clause:
‘to improve standards’ is the key phrase here.
Modifier
modifier /ˈmɒdɪfʌɪə /
▸ noun a person or thing that makes partial or minor changes to something:
mood modifiers like Valium and Lithium.
▪ Grammar a word, especially an adjective or noun used attributively, that restricts or adds to the sense of a head noun (e.g. good and family in a good family house).
▪ Genetics a gene which modifies the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus.
Clause
clause: a group of words that has a subject and a verb. Independent clauses may stand alone as a sentence. ( I sneezed today. ) Dependent clauses cannot stand alone. ( While I was walking downtown, I was hit by a bus.) Clauses can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Infinitive
infinitive: a form of the verb beginning with to. (to sneeze, to bake)
the basic form of a verb, without an inflection binding it to a particular subject or tense (e.g. see in we came to see, let him see).
Participle
participle: the present participle is the ing form of the verb and goes with is (is asking ). The past participle usually ends in ed and goes with have (have asked ). Without the linking verb ( is, have ), a participle acts as an adjective.
a word formed from a verb (e.g. going, gone, being, been) and used as an adjective (e.g. working woman, burnt toast) or a noun (e.g. good breeding). In English participles are also used to make compound verb forms (e.g. is going, has been). Compare with gerund.
Main clause
main clause
▸ noun Grammar a clause that can form a complete sentence standing alone, having a subject and a predicate. Contrasted with subordinate clause.
Gerund
gerund: ing form of the verb, used as a noun. ( Dancing is fun.)
Imperative mood
imperative mood: a mood used to boss people around or to give direction. ( Go now. )
Inflection
inflection /ɪnˈflɛkʃ(ə)n / (mainly British also inflexion)
▸ noun
1 Grammar a change in the form of a word (typically the ending) to express a grammatical function or attribute such as tense, mood, person, number, case, and gender:
a set of word forms differing only in respect of inflections.
▪ [mass noun] the process or practice of inflecting words.
2 [mass noun] the modulation of intonation or pitch in the voice:
she spoke slowly and without inflection
[count noun] the variety of his vocal inflections.
▪ the variation of the pitch of a musical note.
3 mainly Mathematics a change of curvature from convex to concave at a particular point on a curve:
the point of inflection of the bell-shaped curve.
–DERIVATIVES
inflectionless adjective (mainly British also inflexionless)
–ORIGIN late Middle English (in the sense ‘the action of bending inwards’): from Latin inflexio(n-), from the verb inflectere ‘bend in, curve’ (see inflect).
Subordinate clause
subordinate clause
▸ noun a clause, typically introduced by a conjunction, that forms part of and is dependent on a main clause (e.g. ‘when it rang’ in ‘she answered the phone when it rang’).
Ellipsis
ellipsis: an omission, signaled by three dots. Used in quotations when part of the quote is left out. (He wrote “Man is always attempting…to prove himself.”) An ellipsis can also be used to indicate that a thought is trailing off….
Imperative
imperative /ɪmˈpɛrətɪv /
▸ adjective
1 of vital importance; crucial:
immediate action was imperative
[with clause] it is imperative that standards are maintained.
2 giving an authoritative command; peremptory:
the bell pealed again, a final imperative call.
▪ Grammar denoting the mood of a verb that expresses a command or exhortation, as in come here!
▸ noun
1 an essential or urgent thing:
free movement of labour was an economic imperative.
▪ a factor or influence making something necessary:
the biological imperatives which guide male and female behaviour.
2 Grammar a verb or phrase in the imperative mood.
▪ (the imperative) the imperative mood.
–DERIVATIVES
imperatival /ɪmˌpɛrəˈtʌɪv(ə)l / adjective
imperatively /ɪmˈpɛrətɪvli / adverb
imperativeness noun
–ORIGIN late Middle English (as a grammatical term): from late Latin imperativus (literally ‘specially ordered’, translating Greek prostatikē enklisis ‘imperative mood’), from imperare ‘to command’, from in- ‘towards’ + parare ‘make ready’.
Agreement
agreement: subjects and verbs must agree in person and in number. This just means the subject and verb must go together. ( I laugh, he laughs. ) A pronoun must agree with its antecedent. This just means that you must use a singular pronoun if you’re referring to a singular noun, and a plural pronoun if you’re referring to a plural noun.
Apostrophe
apostrophe: a punctuation mark that shows ownership ( Pinky’s puppy) or forms a contraction ( don’t, wouldn’t ).
Appositive
appositive: a noun or pronoun, set off by commas, that interrupts the sentence and gives further explanation. (Ralph, my boss , was late.)
Article
article: a short word that functions as an adjective to indicate which one . The is the definite article; a, an are indefinite articles.
Collective noun
collective noun: think of it as a “group” noun. ( committee, jury, family ) Usually treated as singular.
Colon
colon: a punctuation mark that signals a list will follow or precedes an explanation of something just mentioned. (Three things are needed: a bat, a ball, and a glove.)
Comma
comma: a punctuation mark used to break up the sentence, to make the reader pause.
Coordinating conjunctions
coordinating conjunctions: they connect nouns to nouns, phrases to phrases, and clauses to clauses. ( and, but, or, so )
Correlative conjunction
correlative conjunction: also known as a seesaw conjunction , because it connects equal parts of a sentence together like a seesaw. Common correlative conjunctions are not only/but also, either/or, and both/and .
Dangling participle
dangling participle: a participle that is placed incorrectly in the sentence so that it modifies the wrong noun. (Sleeping soundly, the alarm woke us up.)
Demonstrative pronoun
demonstrative pronoun: also known as pointing pronouns . They are used to indicate which thing you are talking about. ( that, these, this, those )
Dependent clause
dependent clause: same as subordinate clause . A dependent clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Diction
diction: word choice.
Expletive
expletive: an obscenity or “swear word.” It is cold out. Damn!
Faulty comparison
faulty comparison: an error of clarity. When making a comparison, be sure to compare verb to verb or noun to noun.
Future
future: a tense used to describe events that haven’t happened yet. Think of it as the “tomorrow” tense. (I will eat turkey tomorrow.)
Future perfect
future perfect: a combination of a future and past tense, used to show that an action is finished before a specified time in the future. (I will have finished the project by next Tuesday.)
Hyphen
hyphen: a punctuation mark used to form a compound adjective (blue-green, well-born).
Indefinite pronoun
indefinite pronoun: a pronoun that doesn’t stand in for a specific noun. Examples: each, either, few, none, plenty.
Indicative mood
indicative mood: a mood used to state a fact or ask a question. Most sentences are indicative.
Interjection
interjection: a word used to show emphasis. Yikes! No rules apply!
Interrogative pronoun
interrogative pronoun: also known as a question pronoun. A pronoun that is used simply to ask a question. What? Which? Who?
Intransitive verb
intransitive verb: the distinction between intransitive and transitive verbs is made in the dictionary: vi or vt , respectively. An intransitive verb doesn’t take a direct object. (I walked .) A transitive verb takes a direct object. (She hit the ball. )
Linking conjunction
linking conjunction: also known as a subordinate conjunction , this is a conjunction that links a subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. ( after, while, since, until, if )
Linking verb
linking verb: a verb that doesn’t express direct action, but a state of being. (any form of to be, seem, look, remain )
Misplaced modifier
misplaced modifier: often a participial phrase, or any kind of description, that is placed incorrectly in the sentence so that it appears to modify the wrong thing.
Modify
modify: describe.
Mood
mood: subjunctive, indicative, and imperative moods are used to describe different types of sentences.
Object
object: the object of a verb has an action done to it. (She hit the ball . She wanted me. ) The object of a preposition is the noun that finishes the prepositional phrase. (to the lighthouse, after the lecture)
Objective case
objective case: see case .
Past tense
past tense: used to express actions that occurred in the past. (I slept. )
Past perfect
past perfect: a tense used in a sentence that already has a verb in the simple past tense to express an action that happened even earlier. (Before I slept, I had eaten beef.)
Plural
plural: more than one, as opposed to singular, which is only one. Applies to nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
Present tense
present tense: for now, today. (I breathe , he walks )
Present perfect
present perfect: a tense used to express action that started in the past and continues into the present, or was finished at some earlier time but still affects the present situation. (She has slept for hours; I am upset because I have lost my mittens.)
Principal parts
principal parts: basic verb forms including present, past, present participle, and past participle.
Question pronoun
question pronoun: or interrogative pronoun , is used to ask a question: What? Who?
Redundancy
redundancy: needless repetition. ( close proximity; 6 A.M. in the morning)
Reflexive pronoun
reflexive pronoun: or mirror pronoun , is used to spin the action back at the subject (He loves only himself. ), or for emphasis. (The candidate himself wrote the speech.)
Relative clause
relative clause: a subordinate, or dependent, clause that is introduced by a relative pronoun ( which, that, who, what ). A relative clause always acts as an adjective.
Relative pronoun
relative pronoun: introduces a relative clause. Examples: which, that, who . Indefinite relative pronouns have no antecedent ( what, which, whatever, whomever ).
Seesaw conjunction
seesaw conjunction: our term for correlative conjunctions. Examples include: either/or, both/and, neither/nor, and not only/but also. Parts on either side of a seesaw conjunction must be matched in form.
Semicolon
semicolon: a punctuation mark used to separate two independent clauses. (I ran; I fell.)
Subordinate clause
subordinate clause: also known as a dependent clause , this is a clause that can’t stand alone as a sentence. It will be introduced by a linking, or subordinate conjunction ( after, while, if ) or a relative pronoun ( which, that, who ).
Subordinating conjunction
subordinating conjunction: also known as linking conjunctions . They introduce a subordinate, or dependent, clause. Examples of subordinating conjunctions include: after, if, and while.
Tense
tense: a form of the verb that tells what time the action happened. There are twelve tenses altogether: present, present perfect, past, past perfect, future, future perfect; and the continuous (or progressive) forms of these six.
Transitive verb
transitive verb: takes a direct object (She hit me ) as opposed to an intransitive verb, which doesn’t (She swam ). See intransitive verb .
Verbal
verbal: a phrase that looks like a verb but performs a different function in the sentence. The three kinds of verbals are infinitives, gerunds, and participles. They can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
Singular
singular: used to describe nouns and pronouns when there is only one of them ( bus, it ) as opposed to plural, more than one. Also used to describe the verb form that matches the singular noun or pronoun (bus moves, it flies ).
Progressive
progressive: ing tense, same as continuous .
Pointing pronoun
pointing pronoun: our term for demonstrative pronoun . Used to indicate which thing you are talking about. ( That is crazy.)
Possessive pronoun
possessive pronoun: or ownership pronoun , shows ownership. ( my, his, their )
Person
person: used to categorize personal pronouns. First person: I, we . Second person: you . Third person: he, she, they .
Parallel construction
parallel construction: a consideration of syntax. When you make a list, express the elements in the list in similar form, whether they are nouns, phrases, or clauses. Also, when using seesaw conjunctions, express the elements on either side of the conjunction in similar form.
Nominative case
nominative case: same as subjective case. See case .
Indirect object
indirect object: a substitute for a prepositional phrase. Receiver of the direct object. (Give me the cupcake. Direct object = cupcake; indirect object = me.)
Idiom
idiom: a peculiarity of language; cannot be interpreted literally by the wording; figurative language (raining cats and dogs; bite off more than you can chew)
Gender
gender: applies to pronouns; specifies whether the antecedent is male or female.
Direct object
direct object: a noun receiving the action, not doing the action. (I want to throw socks. )
Case
case: a category that describes the function of a pronoun: subject, object, or possessive. He is the subjective case; him is the objective case; his is the possessive case.
Active voice
active voice: use of a verb so that the subject acts directly, as opposed to being acted upon passively. (active: I smacked him. passive: He was smacked by me. )
Subordinate clause
subordinate clause
▸ noun a clause, typically introduced by a conjunction, that forms part of and is dependent on a main clause (e.g. ‘when it rang’ in ‘she answered the phone when it rang’).
