Grammar & syntax Flashcards
Transitive verbs
If a main verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, it is a transitive verb. “Transitive” means there is a transition of the action from the one to the other.
Linking verbs
If a verb requires a subject complement to complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb. The subject complement typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject.
Common linking verbs
The most common linking verb is “be”. Other common linking verbs include appear, become, seem, feel, get, look, sound, etc..
Intransitive verbs
If a main verb does not require any element to complete the sentence, he verb is intransitive.
e.g.: “I (S) agree (V)
Connectives
Connectives form a subclass of adverbials which express the speakers point of view (1 & 2), or a logical connection between sentences (3 & 4).
- Unfortunately, …
- Luckily, …
- … therefore, …
- Nevertheless, …
Which elements (major sentence constituents) function in the basic sentence structures?
S - Subject
V - Verb
dO - Direct object
iO - Indirect object
SC - Subject complement
AC - Adverbial complement
OC - Object complement
What are the six basic sentence structures?
S + V: “Someone (S) is talking. (V)”
S + V + AC: “My parents (S) are living (V) in Chicago. (AC)”
S + V + SC: “I (S) feel (V) tired. (SC)”
S + V + dO: “We (S) have finished (V) our work. (dO)”
S + V + iO + dO: “She (S) has given (V) me (iO) the letter. (dO)”
S + V + dO + OC: “You (S) have made (V) me (dO) very happy. (OC)”
Finite verb phrases
A finite verb phrase is one that carries a contrast in tense beetween present and past and may also be marked for person and number. In a finite verb phrase, the first or only verb is finite and the other verbs (if any) are non-finite.
- We >play< football every day.
- We >played< in a football match last week.
> play< is in the present tense in [1] and >played< is in the past tense in [2].
On the other hand, in [3], >will< is the finite verb, whereas >play< is non-finite.
- We >will< >play< football later today.
Non-finite verb phrases
The following are the non-finite verb forms:
- the infinitive, often introduced by >to
Split infinitive
A split infinitive occurs when we insert a word between infinitive >to< and the main verb; for example, >to fully understandto undersstand fully< is generally preferred.
What is a tag question and how does one identify the subject by applying the tag question test?
A tag question is a short question whuch is added to the end of a statement, seeking agreement with the statement.
- Amy looks well, >doesn’t she?<
- The childreen seem very happy, >don’t they?<
The last word in the tag question refers back to the subject of the statement. In [1], for example, the word >she< refers back to Amy, so Amy is the subject of >Amy looks well
Functions: subject
The subject is the first participant in the sentence: the person/thing performing the action.
To identify the subject ask:
- Who or what + verb(s)?
=> The answer to the question is the subject
Functions: verb
The verb shows what is happening in the sentence: it shows the action or state.
Functions: direct object
The direct object is the second participant in the sentence: the person/thing receiving the action.
To identify the direct object ask:
- Subject + verb(s) + what?
=> The answer to the question is the direct object
Functions: subject complement
The subject complement says something about the subject (the first participant): it identifies or characterizes the subject.
To identify the subject complement ask:
1. - Subject + verb(s) + what?
2. Does the answer to this question say something about the subject?
=> If the answer is yes, it is a subject complement. Otherwise, it is a direct object
Functions: indirect object
The indirect object is the third participant in the sentence: the person/thing that receives the effect of the action of a verb with two objects.
To identify the indirect object, ask:
- Subject + verb(s) + direct object + to whom or for whom?
=> The answer to the question is the indirect object
Functions: object complement
The object complement says something about the second participant in the sentence: it identifies or characterizes the direct object.
To identify the object complement, ask:
- Subject + verb(s) + direct object + what?
=> The answer to the question is the object complement
Functions: adverbial
The adverbial describes the setting: it gives information about place, time, manner, frequency, reason why, etc.
To identify the adverbial, ask questions like:
- Where, ,when, how, why, etc.
=> The answer to the question is the adverbial
=> Note: a sentence can contain more than one adverbial
Notional definition of a sentence
It is sometimes said a sentence expresses a complete thought. This is a notional definition: it defines a term by the notion or idea that it conveys.
The difficulty with this definition lies in foxing what is meant by a “complete thought”.
Formal definition of a sentence
A sentence is a string of words beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full stop (period). This is a formal definition: it defines a term by the form or shape of what the term refers to.
We can at once see that, as it stands, this definition is inadequate, since (1) many sentences end with a question mark, and (2) capital letters are used for names and full stops are often used in abbreviations.
What is a clause?
A clause is a sentence-like construction contained within a sentence.
A sentence that does not contain another clause within it is called a simple sentence. If it contains one or more clauses, it is a multiple sentence.
Compound sentences
A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more clauses linked by one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but).
Compound sentences usually contain sets of the same sentence functions across the clauses that make up the larger sentence.
What is a clause?
A clause is a sentence-like construction contained within a sentence.
What is a simple sentence?
A sentence that does not contain another clause within it is a simple sentence. If it contains one or more clauses, it is a multiple sentence.
What is a compound sentence?
A compound sentence is a sentence containing two or more clauses linked by one of the coordinating conjunctions >and, or, but
What are the seven coordinating conjunctions?
F - for A - and N - nor B - but O - or Y - yet S - so
Primary auxiliary verbs
Do, be, have
Modal auxiliary verbs
Can, could, will, would, shall, should,may, might, and must
First conditional
If + present
‘If we play tennis.’
Will + infinitive
‘I’ll win.’
Second conditional
If + past
‘If we played tennis.’
Would + infinitive
‘I would win.’
Third conditional
If + past perfect
‘If we had played tennis.’
Would have + past participle
‘I would have won.’
What are the modal verbs? (+expressions)
- Can
- Could
- May
- might
- Must
- Shall
- Should (ought to)
- Will
- Would
+ have to
+ used to
What are modal verbs?
They are “modalizers”. They add information to other verbs, such as:
- (un)certainty
- (im)possibility
- probability
- permission and decisions
- advice or suggestions
- willingness or refusal
- requests, offers and instructions
- obligation
- (un)ability
- typical behaviour
How are modal verbs different from other verbs?
- Modal verbs are followed by a bare infinitive (without ‘to’)
e. g.: “He >can run< for hours.”
Present perfect simple
Forms: have/has been + past participle
We use the present perfect especially to say that a finished action or event is connected with the present in some way.
Present perfect continuous
Forms: have/has been + -doing
We use the present perfect continuous to look back over actions and situations which started in the past and are still going on.
Predicate
The part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject
Ditransitive verbs
Verb + dO + iO
Complex transitive
Verb + dO + OC
Past perfect
had + past participle
The basic meaning of the past perfect is “earlier past”. A common use is to “go back” for a moment when we are already talking about the past, to make it clear that something had already happened at the time we are talking about.
e.g.: “When I arrived at the party, Lucy had already gone home.”
Past perfect continuous
had been + -ing
We use the past perfect continuous to talk about actions or situations which had continued up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it.
Will
Will + bare infinitive
When future events are already decided or when we can ‘see them coming’, we often prefer a present form (usually present continuous or going to…)
Present simple
The present tense is the base form of a verb:
e.g.: “I work in London.”
But with third person singular (he/she/it), we add an -s
e.g: “She works in London.”
Future continuous
shall/will + be …ing
We can use the future continuous to say that something will be in progress at a particular moment in the future.
e.g.: “This time tomorrow I’ll be lying on the beach.”
