Grammar Flashcards
Auxiliary verbs
Examples of auxiliary verbs include be, have do, will, can, could, should, would. The most common use of an auxiliary verb is together with a main verb to show tense or person in questions, negative and passive forms.
Second, auxiliary verbs can act as
Comparisons using “than”:
Nanostructures offer higher surface areas than do conventional materials.
(See Comparing results)
AS + [auxiliary verb]:
In Finland, strong emphasis has been placed on the development of “design for environment” (DFE) tools. Nokia has demonstrated several examples, as has VTT, the Technical Research Centre of Finland.
(See Additive signposts)
What is a Gerund (-ing form)?
Gerunds are derived from verbs and serve as nouns, whereas present participles serve as the continuous form of verbs and as shortened forms for relative clauses (reduced relative clauses).
VERB:
John is selecting a book.
REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSE:
The panel who are selecting the new secretary have been told to hire someone who speaks Spanish.
(full form)
The panel selecting the new secretary have been told to hire someone who speaks Spanish.
(reduced form)
GERUND NOUN:
Selecting the correct data storage system is no easy task.
Gerund
Noun phrase paraphrases
A gerund phrase, one that starts with a gerund, can often be paraphrased with either a noun compound or a French-based noun phrase consisting of the form “the ….tion of”, which contains a definite article, the latinate verbal noun, and “of” . The table below shows examples of the three types of noun phrases, increasing in formality as one progresses to the bottom.
- *Gerund**:
- *Selecting the correct data storage system** is no easy task.
- *French (formal):**
- *The selection of the correct data storage system** is no easy task.
- *Noun compound (technical):**
- *Correct data-storage system selection** is no easy task.
Head Nouns
A “head noun” is the main noun that is modified by other elements in a noun phrase. It is important that you can find head nouns, because this allows you determine whether the phrase can take an indefinite article (if the head noun is a noncount noun, then it cannot occur with ‘a’ or ‘an’). Similarly, knowing the location of the head noun also allows you to ensure that the noun properly agrees in number with the verb.
The various independent historical observational measurements conclude that the global average near-surface temperature has increased by about 0.5 degree centigrade over the past 100 years.
Noun Phrases
As you have probably already noticed, nouns rarely occur by themselves, but instead come in groups which we call Noun phrases (NPs). In academic writing, many NPs can be very complex and long, as the writer attempts to define and narrow the meaning of the “head noun”. NPs are typically modified by adjectives, gentive forms (-‘s or of), relative clauses (clauses introduced by that, which or who), prepositional phrases (clauses introduced by prepositions like to, from, on, at or in), other nouns (noun compounds, e.g. school parking area) or NPs can be created from gerunds (-ing forms).
- *Adjective + noun** Global warming results primarily from the release of heat-trapping gases.
- *of-genitive The temperature of the earth** has increased by about 0.6°C.
- *Prepositional phrase** Global warming will bring about a rise in temperature and other major changes.
- *-ing Gerund** Selecting the right data storage system is no easy task.
- *Relative clause** CO2 is a greenhouse gas that traps the Sun’s radiation within the troposphere.
- *Noun compound Automobile exhaust fumes** lead to ozone generation.
What is a “pronoun”?
Pronouns are words that can replace a noun. You use pronouns like “it”, “which”, “this”, “that”, and “we” to make your sentences less top-heavy and less repetitive.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS (I, we, you, he, she, they)
In general, academic writing tends to avoid personal pronouns and, instead, prefers repeating nouns. The pronouns “I” and “you” are especially avoided, though “we” can be used in some fields when offering explanations or justifications for particular methodological choices (See Describing aims and Explaining procedures).
Unlike the above three personal pronouns, “he”, “she”, and “they” can be freely used to replace the names of particular authors when citing other researchers’ work). However, even here there is a tendency in some fields to use the author’s last name when referring later to the same author.
THIRD-PERSON PRONOUNS (it, they)
Use “it” and “they” to refer to only to those nouns which have been in topical or subject position in the previous sentence.
“BALD” DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS (this, these and that, those)
The demonstrative pronouns are “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those. Demonstrative pronouns differ in two ways from the third-person pronouns “it” and “they”:
Demonstrative pronouns can refer to and summarize the whole of a preceding sentence (e.g., “this” in the example below).
Demonstrative pronouns can also refer to information which is not yet topical, or has been mentioned many sentences earlier, so that it has “fallen” out of focus. Note how in the example below, “these” refers to information that has just been introduced (after the verb) as “new” information in the previous sentence.
In the 19th century, Poul la Cour discovered that fast rotating wind turbines with fewer rotor blades generate electricity more efficiently than slow moving wind turbines with many rotor blades. This led to a number of wind turbine advances during the 20th century. These included the introduction of AC generators, electromechanical yawing to ensure that the rotor always faces directly into the wind, and stall controls to keep the rotor from turning too fast in very strong winds.
Pronouns - THIS / THESE + repetition of ‘given’ term
The installed capital cost of a wind farm includes planning, equipment purchase and construction of the facilities. This cost, typically measured in $/kW, has decreased from more than $2,500/kW in the early 1980’s to less than $1,000/kW for wind farms in the U.S. This decrease is due primarily to improvements in wind turbine technology, but also to the general increase in wind farm sizes.
Prounouns - THIS / THESE + superordinate term
With the Kyoto Protocol, commitments were made not to actions but to results that were to be measured after a decade or more. This approach has several disadvantages. An obvious one is that it is difficult determine, until close to the target date, which nations are on course to meet their goals.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Quantifiers
QUANTIFIERS WITH SINGULAR NOUNS
Two students were suspected of cheating on the test. Each student was questioned after the test.
No proof was found that either student was cheating on the test.
Neither student was found to have cheated on the test.
Every student in the course was questioned after the test.
However, when followed by an of-genitive, the quantifiers ‘each’, ‘either’ and ‘neither’ still require a singular verb form, even when it is followed by a plural noun.
Each of the students was interviewed before the test.
No proof was found that either of the students was cheating on the test.
Neither of the students was found to have cheated on the test.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Quantifiers
QUANTIFIERS WITH PLURAL OR MASS NOUNS
The quantifiers ‘enough’, ‘all’, ‘no’, ‘none’, ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘both’ can combine with a plural noun and the plural verb form, or with a mass noun and the singular verb
Plural noun:
Not enough students are enrolling in writing courses.
No students have enrolled in writing courses.
*Both courses have been popular.
Mass noun:
There is not enough wine in the sauce.
No wine was added to the sauce.
* Unlike the other quantifiers in this group, ‘both’ can not combine with a mass noun.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Quantifiers
QUANTIFIERS WITH BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS
Plural:
A number of students have have recently completed a Masters degree at TKK.
A majority of Finns are opposed to the idea of Finland joining NATO.
Singular:
The number of foreign students at TKK has steadily increased since 2000.
A survey among Finnish voters shows that the majority is opposed to the idea of Finland joining NATO.
Positioning adverbs in the sentence
In academic English, place adverbs before active verbs, after the verb “to be”, or in mid-position between the auxiliary verb and the main verb.
Before an active verb:
The Earth’s dry atmosphere mainly contains nitrogen.
After the verb “to be”:
The increase in greenhouse gases is mainly a result of humans changing the natural patterns of vegetation and polluting the atmosphere.
Mid-position:
The Earth’s dry atmosphere is mainly composed of nitrogen.
