Grammar - 1 Flashcards
Advantages and Disadvantages
We can use a range of expressions to show the advantages and disadvantages (or pros and cons) of different options.
On the one hand, it’s cheaper, but on the other hand it’s lower quality.
One advantage is that it will be cheaper.
One possible disadvantage is that it will be lower quality.
It would be advantageous for us to improve the quality** rather than** increase the price
I think the** pros outweigh** the cons
An additional benefit is that we will be able to finish it quicker
Due / Be / Set
We can use due / be / set + infinitive to talk about future plans and arrangements in a formal way.
Due + infinitives refers to a certain event that is supposed to happen at a specific time.
He’s due to speak at eleven o’clock. (When is he supposed to speak?)
When is he due to leave?
He’s due to arrive tomorrow.
He’s not due to depart until the day after tomorrow.
Be + infinitives refers to formal decisions that are imposed on someone by someone else and to official arrangements in the future.
The CEO is to visit our factory next month.
They are to get our final offer tomorrow.
When are they to finish?
They‘re to finish before the holidays.
She’s not to stay too late tonight.
Set + infinitive refers to someone’s plans for the near future that have not been imposed by someone else
The product is set to be released next month
She’s set to start her new role in a month’s time.
When is the new building set to open?
It’s set to open after the summer.
The product is not set to launch until after the holidays.
Dislike / Hate / Can’t Stand + -ing
To express a strong dislike, we can use verbs usch as dislike, hate, or can’t stand + not + verb + -ing
To express a strong dislike, we can use verbs usch as dislike, hate, or can’t stand + not + verb + -ing
I hate not being told.
They’ll hate not finding out until later.
She dislikes not knowing what’s going on.
She can’t stand not talking to him
He doesn’t like not getting what he wants.
Reported Speech
When we report speech with a reporting verb (e.g.., say) in the present, we use the same tenses, but we have to change the pronouns and verb forms when necessary:
Anna says (that) she’s really hungry because she hasn’t eaten since breakfast.
We can use that after said, but we often leave it out:
Jake said he would meet us here.
When we report another person’s words some time after he / she said them, we usually use a past tense verb to introduce them, and we change the tense of the verbs as well: Anna said (that) she was really hungry because she hadn’t eaten since breakfast.
Indirect speech
Present simple: “We work for the town council”.
**Past simple: **-> They said they worked for the town council.
Present continuous: “I’m doing the laundry”
Past continuous: -> She said she was doing the laundry
Past simple: “We decided to leave earlier today”
**Past perfect: **-> He said they **had decided ** to leave earlier that day.
Past continuous: “I wasn’t telling the truth.”
Past perfect continuous -> She admitted she hadn’t been telling the truth.
Present perfect simple: “My guests haven’t arrived yet”.
Past perfect simple: -> She said her guests hadn’t arrived yet.
Present perfect continuous: “We‘ve been waiting for ages!”
Past perfect continuous -> They complained (that) they had been waiting for ages.
be going to: “They’re going to stay home tonight”
was/were going to -> THey said they were going to stay home tonight.
Most model verbs (e.g., can, will, must):
“I can’t say any more.”
“The result will be available later.”
“You must stop writing.”
could, would, had to:
-> He added that he couldn’t say any more.
-> He said that the result would be available later.
-> She said we had to / must stop writing
Some verb forms don’t change
Past perfect: “I hadn’t met your sister before” -> He said (that) he hadn’t met my sister before.
Modal verbs could, would, should, and mustn’t:
“We could go to France for they day.” -> Len suggested (that) we could go to France for the day.
“You mustn’t talk during the test” -> He insisted that we mustn’t talk during the test
We usually change pronouns and time and place words in reported speech:
Pronouns and possessives
**direct: **
I
me
my
mine
you
your
yours
we
us
our
ours
reported
you / he / she
your / him / her
your / his / her
yours / his / hers
I / we
my / our
mine / ours
they
them
their
theirs
Word for time and place
direct
today
tonight
tomorrow
next ( week, month, etc.)
ago
yesterday
last (week, month, etc.)
now
here
this (place)
reported
that day
that night
the next day / the following day
the next / the following (week, month, etc)
before
the day before / the previous day
the last / the previous (week, month, etc.)
then
there
that (place)
Paul said, “I arrived here an hour ago” -> Paul said he had arrived there an hour before
Angel and Ed said, “We’re starting our course at the college next month”
-> They said they were starting their course at the college the following month
There are times when we can choose not to change the tense of the verbs in indirect speech
When the situation or feelings / opinions in the original speech are still true:
“My three sisters have bright red hair” -> He told me his three sisters have bright red hair
“I really like your friend” -> She said she really likes you.
Compare:
“We’re leaving tomorrow at 6:30”
-> They said they’re leaving tomorrow at 6:30 (reported on the same day as the original)
-> They said they were leaving the next day at 6:30 (reported some days after the original)
When the verb follows the linking words after or because:
I locked the door after I finished cleaning” -> She told him she locked the door after she finished cleaning. OR She told him she’d locked the door after she’d finished cleaning
I’m annoyed because I was talking and you interrupted me” -> She said she was annoyed because she** was talking** and interrupted her. OR She said she was annoyed because she had been talking and I had interrupted her.
Indirect Questions
We usually use indirect questions to make a question more polite or more tentative. We often use them when we are talking to strangers or when we are not sure whether the person we are asking knows the answer.
In indirect questions, we use statement word order; the subject always precedes the verb or verb phrase.
Do you know where the nearest bank is? NOT Do you know where is the nearest bank?
Could you tell me when he left? NOT Could you tell me when did he leave?
Question Tags
We can use question tags for several purposes, and we say them differently.
To ask for information when we don’t know the answer.
You haven’t talked to Jim yet, have you?
To confirm something we think we already know:
It is the first of May today,** isn’t it?**
To make a request:
You’ll bring me back some of those oranges,** won’t you?**
Remember that the tag must match the tense of the verb in the original sentence. Use the negative tag with an affirmative sentence and an affirmative tag with a negative sentence.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are more common in informal English. Phrasal verbs usually have meaning which is different from the meaning of the parts:
Are you taking a suitecase? (take = carry)
The power’s off (is off = not connected)
After the argument, he took of without a word (take off = leave unexpectedly)
Many phrasal verbs have the same meaning as another, more formal verb.
Find out (information) = discover
Take off (your coat) = remove
Continuous Forms
It is becoming more common to use like, love, and hate in the continuous form in informal English: “How’s the course going?” It’s great! I’m really loving it!”
I’ve been thinking about getting a new job.
She’s planning to leave next year.
Past Perfect / Past Perfect Continuous
We can use the past perfect tense (had + past participle) or the past perfect continuous tense (had been + ing) to talk about an event that took place before another event in the past.
The past perfect tense is used to emphasize the completion of the first event.
I had read the book (FIRST EVENT) before the movie came out. (SECOND EVENT)
They didn’t enjoy the meal (SECOND EVENT), as the food hadn’t been cooked properly (FIRST EVENT)
The past perfect continuous tense is used to show that the first event was in progress before the second event happened.
He** had been working** all day (FIRST EVENT), so he got tired (SECOND EVENT)
She had been felling sick for five days (FIRST EVENT) by the time she finally went to see the doctor (SECOND EVENT)
They got very tired (SECOND EVENT) because they** had been playing** tennis all day (FIRST EVENT)
Register of Vocabulary
We can use different words or expressions to describe the same action or situation, depending on whether we are in a formal or casual setting.
I’m sick. (cause
Would rather/ It’s time…
To talk about present or past preferences, we can use a past tense after phrases such as would rather and it’s time.
Would rather
I would rather we stayed in tonight (present)
She would rather have stayed in last night (past)
We can also use would rather when we prefer somebody to do something, including the subject.
I would rather you didn’t open the window (present)
I‘d rather she went home now (present)
She‘d rather you had gone home (past)
It’s time…
It’s time is also followed by a subject and then the past tense but usually has a present meaning.
It’s time she went home (present)
It’s time they finished the report (present)
Formal Writing
<p><strong>Formal Writing</strong><br></br>There are several features of more formal written language that we should pay attention to, especially when writing formal letters, papers, or presentations. Features of formal written language include the use of nouns, pronouns, relative pronouns, full forms, and the passive voice.<br></br><br></br>The following features are found in formal writing:<br></br>Longer and more complex sentences<br></br>Full words rather than contractions (<strong>cannot </strong>vs. <strong>can’t</strong>)<br></br>Impersonal style that avoids emotional punctuation such as exclamation points<br></br>Formal words (<strong>prior to</strong> vs. <strong>before</strong>, <strong>expect </strong>vs. <strong>want</strong>)<br></br>No colloquial terms (<strong>excellent </strong>vs. <strong>great</strong>)<br></br>No abbreviated words (<strong>photography </strong>vs. <strong>photo</strong>)<br></br><br></br><em>As you know, she is a valued customer.</em><em><br></br>As you know, Mrs. Delaney is a valued customer.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>He and I investigated the issue.</em><em><br></br>Together with John Reilly, </em><em>I</em> <em>investigated the issue.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>These guys are one of our biggest competitors.</em><em><br></br>ABC Corporation is one of our biggest competitors.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>You need to fix this problem.</em><em><br></br>The problem needs to be fixed.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>I want you to help me.</em><em><br></br>This is a request for some help.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>We fixed the problem we encountered.</em><em><br></br>The problem that was encountered was fixed.</em> (more formal)<br></br><em>I’m pretty upset right now.</em><br></br><em>I am not happy with the situation at the moment. </em>(more formal)</p>
Due + Infinitive / Expect (+ Object) + Infinitive
<p><em><strong>Due</strong></em><strong> + Infinitive / </strong><em><strong>Expect</strong></em><strong> (+ Object) + Infinitive</strong><br></br>We can talk about past events that were predicted to happen but didn’t using <strong>due </strong>/ <strong>expect </strong>plus the infinitive (<strong>to </strong>+ verb). Note that for <strong>expect </strong>we can also insert an object before the infinitive.<br></br><em>It was </em><em><strong>due</strong></em> <em><strong>to arrive</strong></em><em>. </em>(It didn’t arrive.)<br></br><em>It wasn’t </em><em><strong>due</strong></em> <em><strong>to arrive</strong></em><em> today. </em>(It arrived today.)<br></br><em>She was </em><em><strong>due</strong></em> <em><strong>to give</strong></em><em> a presentation this morning. </em>(She didn’t give the presentation.)<br></br><em>The package was </em><em><strong>due</strong></em> <em><strong>to be delivered</strong></em><em> by noon. </em>(The package wasn’t delivered by noon.)<br></br><em>I was </em><em><strong>expecting</strong></em> <em><strong>to arrive</strong></em><em> at the office early. </em>(I didn’t arrive early.)<br></br><em>She was </em><em><strong>expecting</strong></em><em> it to last less than an hour. </em>(It lasted longer than an hour.)<br></br><em>We weren’t </em><em><strong>expecting</strong></em><em> her to be at work today. </em>(She was at work today.)</p>
Modal Verb + Have + Past Participle
<p><strong>Modal Verb + </strong><em><strong>Have</strong></em><strong> + Past Participle</strong><br></br>When speculating about the past, we can use the modal verb followed by <strong>have </strong>+ past participle (such as <strong>been</strong>, <strong>seen</strong>, <strong>known</strong>, etc.).<br></br><em>It </em><em><strong>must have been </strong></em><em>difficult for him. </em>(= I’m very certain it was hard for him.)<br></br><em>It </em><em><strong>can’t have been </strong></em><em>easy for him. </em>(= It’s impossible that it was easy for him.)<br></br><em>He </em><em><strong>couldn’t have known</strong></em><em> about the problem. </em>(= It’s impossible he knew about the problem.)<br></br><em>Sh</em><em>e </em><em><strong>might have told</strong></em><em> me about the problem. </em>(= It’s possible she told me about the problem.)</p>
Expressing Regret
<p><strong>Expressing Regret</strong></p>
<p>We can use <strong>if only</strong><em>,</em> <strong>wish</strong><em>, </em>and <strong>should</strong> <strong>have </strong>to express regret in the past.</p>
<p><em><strong>If only </strong></em>+ <strong>Past Perfect, </strong><em><strong>Would have</strong></em> + <strong>Past Participle</strong></p>
<p><em><strong>If only</strong></em><em> you </em><em><strong>had seen</strong></em><em> the email, we </em><em><strong>wouldn’t have had</strong></em><em> this problem. </em>(= You didn’t see the email.)</p>
<p><em>I </em><em><strong>wouldn’t have been</strong></em><em> late </em><em><strong>if only</strong></em><em> I </em><em><strong>had woken</strong></em><em> up on time. </em>(= I didn’t wake up on time, so I was late.)</p>
<p><em>He </em><em><strong>would have seen</strong></em><em> me </em><em><strong>if only</strong></em><em> I </em><em><strong>had waved</strong></em><em>. </em>(= He didn’t see me because I didn’t wave.)</p>
<p> </p>
<p><em><strong>Wish </strong></em>+ <strong>Past Perfect</strong></p>
<p><em>She </em><em><strong>wishes she’d told</strong></em><em> me about her problem. </em>(= She didn’t tell me about her problem.)</p>
<p><em>They </em><em><strong>wish they hadn’t</strong></em> <em><strong>sold</strong></em><em> the company. </em>(= They sold the company.)</p>
<p> </p>
<p><em><strong>Should have </strong></em>+<strong> Past Participle</strong></p>
<p><em>I </em><em><strong>should have gone</strong></em><em> to bed earlier. </em>(= It was a good idea to go to bed earlier, but I didn’t.)</p>
<p><em>He </em><em><strong>shouldn’t have shouted</strong></em><em> at her. </em>(= It was a bad idea to shout at her, but he did anyway.)</p>
<p><em>They </em><em><strong>should have known</strong></em><em> this was going to happen.</em> (= They didn’t know.)</p>
