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Biomolecules and Cells > Glossary > Flashcards

Glossary Flashcards

1
Q

Fossil

A

Any recognisable structure originating from an organism, or any impression that has been preserved over geological time

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2
Q

Ontogeny

A

The origination and development of an organism, from fertilisation to maturity.

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3
Q

Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of a kind of organism.

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4
Q

Ultrastructure

A

The detailed structure of a biological specimen (cell, tissue, organ) observed by electron microscopy.

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5
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribosenucleic Acid - The fundamental hereditary material of all living organisms

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6
Q

Protein

A

Long chain polymer of amino acids.

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7
Q

Homology

A

The existence of shared ancestry between a pair of structures or genes in different species

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8
Q

Paralogy

A

An anatomical similarity without shared ancestry

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9
Q

Cell

A

The simplest structural unit of a living organism.

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10
Q

Archaea

A

A group of single celled prokaryotic organisms that have distinct molecular characteristics separating them from bacteria.

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11
Q

Bacteria

A

A large group of unicellular microorganisms with peptidoglycan cell walls, no organelles and no organised nucleus.

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12
Q

Eukarya

A

Organisms made up of eukaryotic cells (genetic material in a nucleus)

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13
Q

Prokaryotic

A

Prokaryotic cells are unicellular, and have no nuclei or membrane enclosed organelles.

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14
Q

Peptidoglycan

A

The cell wall material of many bacteria, consisting of a single enormous molecule that surrounds the entire cell

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15
Q

Circular Chromosome

A

Bacterial chromosomes contained in a circular DNA molecule

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16
Q

Nucleoid

A

The region that harbours the chromosomes of a prokaryotic cell, with no membrane.

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17
Q

Ribosome

A

A small particle in the cell that is the site of protein synthesis

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18
Q

Flagellum

A

A long, whip like appendage that propels cells. Prokaryotic flagella differ sharply from those found in eukaryotes.

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19
Q

Nucleus

A

A dense organelle present in most eukaryotic cells, typically a single rounded structure bonded by a double membrane, containing the genetic material

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20
Q

Organelle

A

A membrane-bound compartment or ‘mini-organ’ within a cell with a specialised function.

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21
Q

Chromosomes

A

Thread like structures of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

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22
Q

Histones

A

Any group of basic proteins found in chromatin

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23
Q

Chromatin

A

The material of which the chromosomes of eukaryotes are composed, consisting of protein, RNA and DNA

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24
Q

Nuclear Envelope

A

The nuclear membrane, being a double membrane which surrounds the genetic material and nucleolus in eukaryotic cells.

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25
Q

Nuclear Pores

A

Large protein complexes that cross the nuclear envelope

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26
Q

Endomembrane System

A

A system of intracellular membranes that exchange material with one another, consisting of the Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum and lysosomes when present.

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27
Q

Endoplasmic Reticulum

A

A system of membranous tubes and flattened sacs found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes (smooth and Rough)

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28
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

A system of concentrically folded membranes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells; functions in secretion from the cell by exocytosis.

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29
Q

Glycosylation

A

The addition of carbohydrates to another typo of molecule, such as a protein

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30
Q

Cisternae

A

A flattened membrane disk that makes up the Golgi Apparatus

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31
Q

Vesicles

A

Within the cytoplasm, a membrane enclosed compartment that is associated with other organelles such as the Golgi Apparatus

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32
Q

Glycoproteins

A

A protein to which sugars are attached

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33
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

The network of microtubules and microfilaments that gives a eukaryotic cell its shape and its capacity to arrange its organelles and move

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34
Q

Microtubules

A

Tubular structures made up of 13 filaments forming a cylinder found in centrioles, spindle apparatus, cilia, flagella and the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells

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35
Q

Microfilaments

A

A fibrous structure in eukaryotic cells made up of actin monomers. Play roles in the cytoskeleton, in cell movement, and in muscle contraction. They interact with myosin motors.

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36
Q

Actin

A

A protein that makes up the cytoskeletal microfilaments in eukaryotic cells and contractile protein of muscle

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37
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

Cytoskeletal compartments found int he cells of many animal species

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38
Q

Myosin

A

One of the two contractile proteins of muscle

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39
Q

Dynein

A

A motor protein in cells which converts the chemical energy contained in ATP into the mechanical energy of movement. Also cause the movement of the flagellum - one end is permanently attached, other end walks along the other microtubule, causing them to slide against each other.

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40
Q

Kinesin

A

A motor protein in Eukaryotic Cells. Uses ATP to walk along microtubules carrying molecules.

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41
Q

Lipids

A

Non-polar, hydrophobic molecules that include fats, oils, waxes, steroids and the phospholipids that make up biological membranes

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42
Q

Sterols

A

Also known as Steroid alcohols, are a sub group of steroids that occur naturally in plants, animals and fungi, with an OH group (e.g. cholesterol)

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43
Q

Fatty acids

A

A molecule made up of a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain and a polar carboxyl group

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44
Q

Triglycerides

A

Simple lipids in which three fatty acids are combined with one molecule of glycerol

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45
Q

Membranes

A

A phospholipid bilayer forming a barrier that separates the internal contents of a cell from the nonbiological environment, or enclosing the organelles within the cll. The membrane regulates the molecular substances entering or leaving the cell

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46
Q

Fluid mosaic model

A

A molecular model for the structure of biological membranes consisting of a fluid phospholipid bilayer in which suspended proteins are free to move in the plane of the bilayer

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47
Q

Differentially permeable

A

A semipermeable membrane is a membrane that will only allow certain molecules or ions to pass through it b diffusion, or occasionally by more specialised cases of facilitated transport

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48
Q

Diffusion

A

Random movement of molecules or other particles, resulting in an even distribution of the particles when no barriers are present

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49
Q

Osmosis

A

Movement of water across a differentially permeable membrane, from one region of high concentration towards a region of low concentration

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50
Q

Facilitated diffusion

A

Passive movement through a membrane involving a specific carrier protein, does not proceed against a concentration gradient

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51
Q

Active Transport

A

The energy dependent transport of a substance across a biological membrane against a concentration gradient

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52
Q

Endocytosis

A

A process by which liquids or solid particles are taken up by a cell through invagination of the cell membrane

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53
Q

Exocytosis

A

A process by which a vesicle within a cell fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents to the outside

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54
Q

Isotonic

A

Having the same solute concentration

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55
Q

Hypertonic

A

Having a greater solute concentration

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56
Q

Desmosomes

A

An adhering junction between animal cells

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57
Q

Plasmadesmata

A

Cytoplasmic strands connecting two adjacent plant cells

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58
Q

Gap Junctions

A

2.7nm gap between plasma membranes of two animal cells, spanned by protein channels, Gap junctions allow chemical substances or electrical signals to pass from cell to cell

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59
Q

Protein

A

Long chain polymer of amino acids with twenty different common side chains. Occurs with its polymer chain extended in fibrous proteins, or coiled into a compact macromolecule i.e. enzymes and other globular proteins. The component amino acids are encoded in triplets of messenger RNA, and proteins are the product of genes

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60
Q

Amino Acid

A

An organic compound containing both NH2 and COOH groups. Proteins are polymers of amino acids.

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61
Q

Peptide bond

A

The bond between amino acids in a protein; formed between a carboxyl group and an amino group (-CO-NH-) with the loss of water molecules

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62
Q

Enzymes

A

Catalytic proteins that speed up biochemical reactions

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63
Q

CAtalyst

A

A chemical substance that accelerates a reaction in which the products have higher free energy than the reactants, thereby requiring free energy input to occur.

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64
Q

Activation Energy

A

The energy barrier that blocks the tendency for a chemical reaction to occur

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65
Q

Allosteric inhibition

A

Allosteric regulation is the regulation of the activity of a protein (usually an enzyme) by the binding of an effector molecule to a site other than the active site.

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66
Q

Cofactors

A

Inorganic ions that are weakly bound to enzymes and required for its activity

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67
Q

Respiration

A

The catabolic pathways by which electrons are removed from various molecules and passed through intermediate electron carriers to O2, generating H2O and releasing energy.

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68
Q

ATP

A

(adenosine triphosphate) an energy storage compound containing adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. When it is formed from ADP, useful energy is stored; when it is broken down (to ADP or AMP), energy is released to drive endergonic reactions

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69
Q

Aerobic

A

In the presence of oxygen; requiring or using oxygen

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70
Q

Anaerobic

A

Occurring without the use of O2

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71
Q

Fermentation

A

The anaerobic degradation of a substance such as glucose to smaller molecules such as lactic acid or alcohol (ethanol) with the extraction of energy

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72
Q

NAD+ and NADH

A

(nicotinamide ademine dinucleotide) A coenzyme which acts as an electron carrier in redox reactions, especially in glucose metabolism. Exists in an oxidised (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) form. The oxidation is highly exergonic, so NADH is able to hold lots of energy which can later be transferred to ATP

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73
Q

FAD and FADH2

A

Another electron carrier in glucose metabolism

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74
Q

Reduction

A

Gain of electrons by a chemical reactant

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75
Q

Oxidation

A

Loss of electrons by a chemical reactant

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76
Q

Glycolisis

A

The enzymatic breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid

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77
Q

Kreb’s Cycle

A

(Citric Acid Cycle/TCA Cycle) In cellular respiration, a set of chemical reactions whereby acetyl CoA is oxidised to carbon dioxide and Hydrogen atoms are stored as NADH and FADH2

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78
Q

Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

ATP formation in the mitochondrion, associated with the flow of electrons through the respiratory chain

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79
Q

Mitochondria

A

Energy generating organelles in eukaryotic cells that contain the enzymes of the citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain and oxidative phosphorylation

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80
Q

Respiratory Chain

A

The terminal reactions of cellular respiration, in which electrons are passed from NAD or FAD, through a series of intermediate carriers, to molecular oxygen with the concomitant production of ATP

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81
Q

Cristae

A

Folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria, giving the inner membrane its characteristic wrinkled shape and providing a large amount of surface area for chemical reactions to occur on.

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82
Q

Mitochondrial matrix

A

The fluid interior of a mitochondrion, enclosed y the inner mitochondrial membrane

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83
Q

Plastids

A

A class of plant organelles that includes the chloroplast. The site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cell.

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84
Q

Chloroplast

A

An organelle bounded by a double membrane containing the enzymes and pigments that perform photosynthesis. Chloroplasts appear only in eukaryotes.

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85
Q

Thylakoids

A

A flattened sac within a chloroplast. Thylakoid membranes contain all of the chlorophyll in a plant, in addition to electron carriers of phosphorylation. Thylakoids stack to form grana

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86
Q

Stroma

A

The fluid contents of an organelle such as a chloroplast or mitochondria

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87
Q

Endosymbriosis

A

The theory that the eukaryotic cell evolved via the engulfing of one prokaryotic cell by another

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88
Q

Centromere

A

The region where sister chromatids join

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89
Q

Centrosome

A

The major microtubule organising centre of animal cell

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90
Q

Centriole

A

A paired organelle that helps organise the microtubules in animal and protist cells during nuclear division.

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91
Q

Chromatin

A

The nucleic acid protein complex that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes

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92
Q

Chromatid

A

A newly replicated chromosome, from the time molecular duplication occurs until the time the centromeres separate (during anaphase of mitosis or of meiosis II)

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93
Q

Chromosome

A

In bacteria and viruses, the DNA molecule that contains most or all of the genetic information of the cell or virus. In eukaryotes, a structure composed of DNA and proteins that bears part of the genetic information of the cell

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94
Q

Kinetechore

A

Specialised structure on a centromere to which microtubules attach

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95
Q

Spindle

A

Array of microtubules emanating from both poles of a dividing cell during mitosis and playing a role in the movement of chromosomes at nuclear division

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96
Q

Macromolecule

A

A giant (molecular weight > 1000) polymeric molecule. The macromolecules are the proteins, polysaccharides and nucleic acids

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97
Q

Polymer

A

A large molecule mad up of similar or identical subunits called monomers

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98
Q

Condensation

A

A chemical reaction in which two molecules become connected by a covalent bond and a molecule of water is released (AH + BOH -> AB + H2O)

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99
Q

Carbohydrates

A

Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ration 1:2:1 (sugars, starch and cellulose)

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100
Q

Polysaccharide

A

A macromolecule composed of many monosaccharides (simple sugars) - Cellulose and Starch

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101
Q

Monosaccharide

A

A simple sugar. Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are made up of monosaccharides.

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102
Q

Nucleic Acid

A

A polymer made up of nucleotides, specialised for the storage, transmission and expression of genetic information

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103
Q

Phosphodiester bond

A

The connection in a nucleic acid strand, formed by linking two nucleotides

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104
Q

Nucleotide

A

The basic chemical unit in nucleic acids, consisting of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen containing base

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105
Q

Purine

A

One of the two types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids. Each of the purines - adenine and guanine - pairs with a specific pyrimidines

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106
Q

Pyrimidine

A

One of the two types of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids. Each of the pyrimidines -cytosine, thymine and uracil - pairs with a specific purine.

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107
Q

Nitrogenous base

A

A nitrogen containing molecule that has the same chemical properties as a base, that is attached to each sugar in the sugar phosphate backbone of nucleic acids.

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108
Q

Base pair

A

In double stranded DNA, a pair of nucleotides formed by the complementary base pairing of a purine on one strand and a pyrimidine on the other

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109
Q

Genetic code

A

The set of instructions, in the form of nucleotide triplets, that translate a linear sequence of nucleotides in mRNA into a linear sequence of amino acids in a protein

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110
Q

Internal Environment

A

In multicellular organisms, includes blood plasma and intestitial fluid. i.e. the extracellular fluids that surround cells

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111
Q

Interstitial Fluid

A

Extracellular fluid that is not contained in the vessels of a circulatory system

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112
Q

Homeostasis

A

The maintenance of a steady state, such as a constant temperature, by means of physiological or behavioural feedback responses

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113
Q

Epithelial Tissue

A

A type of animal tissue made up of sheets of cells that lines or covers organs, makes up tubules, and covers the surface of the body (squamous, columnar, cuboidal, stratified)

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114
Q

Muscle Tissue

A

Excitable tissue that can contract through the interactions of actin and myosin. There are three types: skeletal, smooth and cardiac

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115
Q

Connective tissue

A

A type of tissue that connects or surrounds other tissues; its cells are embedded in a collagen-containing matrix. Includes cartilage, blood, bone and fat

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116
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

Tissue specialised for processing and communicating information

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117
Q

Neuron

A

A nervous system cell that can generate and conduct action potentials along an axon to a synapse with another cell

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118
Q

Glial Cells

A

One of the two classes of neural cells; glia do not typically conduct action potentials

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119
Q

Ectotherm

A

An animal that is dependent on external heat sources for regulating its body temperature

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120
Q

Endotherm

A

An animal that can control its body temperature by the expenditure of its own metabolic energy

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121
Q

Hypothermia

A

Below-normal body temperature

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122
Q

Hibernation

A

The state of inactivity of some animals during winter; marked by a drop in body temperature and metabolic reate

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123
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate

A

The minimum rate of energy turnover in an awake (but resting) bird or mammal that is not expending energy for thermoregulation

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124
Q

Beta Pleated Sheet

A

A type of protein secondary structure, results from hydrogen bonding between polypeptide regions running antiparallel to one another

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125
Q

Alpha Helix

A

A prevalent type of secondary protein structure. A right hand helix.

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126
Q

Signal Transduction Pathway

A

The series of biochemical steps whereby a stimulus to a cell (such as a hormone or neurotransmitter binding to a receptor) is translated into a response of the cell.

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127
Q

Autocrine

A

A chemical signal that binds and affects the cell that makes it

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128
Q

Paracrine

A

A chemical signal that acts locally, near the site of its secretion.

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129
Q

Receptor Protein

A

A protein that can bind to a specific molecule, or detect a specific stimulus, within the cell or in the cell’s external environment. Receptors can be located in the cell membrane, the cytoplasm or the nucleus.

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130
Q

Ion Channel

A

An integral membrane protein that allows ions to diffuse across the membrane in which it is embedded

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131
Q

Protein Kinase

A

An enzyme that catalyses the addition of a phosphate group from ATP to a target protein

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132
Q

Protein Kinase Cascade

A

A series of reactions in response to a molecular signal, in which a series of protein kinases activate one another in a sequence, amplifying the signal at each step

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133
Q

G Protein

A

A membrane protein involved in signal transduction, characterised by binding GDP or GTP

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134
Q

G Protein-linked receptors

A

A class of receptors that change configuration upon ligand binding such that a G protein binding site is exposed on the cytoplasmic domain of the receptor, initiating a signal transduction pathway.

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135
Q

Effector Protein

A

In cell signalling, a protein responsible for the cellular response to a signal transduction pathway

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136
Q

Second Messenger

A

A compound, such as cAMP, that is released within a target cell after a hormone (the first messenger) has bound to a surface receptor on a cell; the second messenger triggers further reactions within the cell

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137
Q

Hormone

A

A chemical signal produced in minute amounts at one site in a multicellular organism and transported to another site where it acts on target cells

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138
Q

Neurohormone

A

A chemical signal produced and released by neurones and subsequently acts as a hormone

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139
Q

Tropic Hormones

A

Hormones produced by the anterior pituitary that control the secretion of hormones by other endocrine glands

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140
Q

Endocrine Gland

A

An aggregation of secretory cells that secretes hormones into the blood. The endocrine system consists of all endocrine cells and glands in the body that produce and release hormones

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141
Q

Exocrine gland

A

Any gland that secretes molecules into a duct

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142
Q

Hypothalamus

A

The part of the brain lying below the thalamus; it coordinates water balance, reproduction, temperature regulation and metabolism

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143
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A

The portion of the vertebrate pituitary gland that derives from gut epithelium. Produces Tropic Hormones.

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144
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A

A portion of the pituitary gland derived from neural tissue; involved in the storage and release of antidireutic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin

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145
Q

Negative Feedback

A

In regulatory systems, information that decreases a regulatory response, returning the system to the set point

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146
Q

Fight or Flight Response

A

A rapid physiological response to a sudden threat mediated by the hormone epinephrine/adrenalin.

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147
Q

Neuron

A

A nervous system cell that can generate and conduct action potentials along an axon to a synapse with another cell

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148
Q

Dendrites

A

Branching fibres (processes) of a neuron. Dendrites are usually short compared with the axon, and commonly receive information then carry it to the neuronal cell body

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149
Q

Axon

A

The process (branching structure) of a neuron that conducts action potentials away from the cell body

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150
Q

Axon Terminal

A

The end portion of an axon, which passes information to another cell. Axon terminals form synapses with other cells and release neurotransmitters

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151
Q

Glia

A

One of the two classes of neural cells; glia support, nourish and insulate neurons.

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152
Q

Central Nervous System (CNS)

A

The portion of the nervous system that is the site of most information processing, storage, and retrieval; in vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord.

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153
Q

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

The portion of the nervous system that transmits information to and from the central nervous system, consisting of neurons that extend or reside outside the brain or spinal cord and their supporting cells

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154
Q

Afferent Neurons

A

Neurons that carry impulses towards the central nervous system (Sensory Neurons)

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155
Q

Efferent Neurons

A

Neurons that carry impulses outward from the central to the peripheral nervous system (Motor Neurons)

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156
Q

Interneuron

A

A neuron that communicates information between two other neurons

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157
Q

Sensory System

A

A set of organs and tissues for detecting a stimulus; consists of sensory cells, the associated structures, and the neural networks that process the information

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158
Q

Synapse

A

A specialised type of junction where a neuron meets its target cell (which can be another neuron or some other type of cell) and information in the form of neurotransmitter molecules is exchanged across a synaptic clerft

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159
Q

Synaptic Cleft

A

The space between the presynaptic cell and the postsynaptic cell

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160
Q

Presynaptic Cell

A

The neuron that transmits information to another cell at a synapse

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161
Q

Postsynaptic Cell

A

The cell that receives information from a neuron at a synapse

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162
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

A substance produced in and released by a neuron (the presynaptic cell) that diffuses across a synapse and excites or inhibits another cell (the postsynaptic cell)

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163
Q

Myelin

A

Concentric layers of plasma membrane that form a sheath around some axons; myelin provides the axons with electrical insulation and increases the rate of transmission of action potentials

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164
Q

Oligodendrocyte

A

A type of glial cell that myelinates axons in the central nervous system

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165
Q

Schwann Cell

A

A type of glial cell that myelinates axons in the peripheral nervous system

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166
Q

Cerebrum

A

The dorsal anterior portion of the forebrain, making up the largest part of the mammalian brain; the chief coordination centre of the nervous system and the major information processing areas of the vertebrate brain, consists of two cerebral hemispheres

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167
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

The thin layer of grey matter (neuronal cell bodies) that overlies the cerebrum

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168
Q

Cerebellum

A

The brain region that controls muscular coordination; located at the anterior end of the hindbrain

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169
Q

Brainstem

A

The portion of the vertebrate brain between the spinal cord and the forebrain, made up of the medulla, pons and midbrain

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170
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

The largest of the brain lobes in humans; involved with feeling and planning functions; includes the primary motor cortex

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171
Q

Parietal Lobe

A

Processes complex stimuli and includes the primary somatosensory cortex

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172
Q

Temporal Lobe

A

Receives and processes auditory and visual information; involved in recognising, identifying and naming objects

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173
Q

Occipital Lobe

A

Processes visual information

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174
Q

Gyri and Sulci

A

Respectively, the ridges and valleys of the foldings of the vertebrate brains cerebral cortex

175
Q

Association Cortex

A

In the vertebrate brain, the portion of the cortex involved in higher-order information processing, so named because it integrates, or associates, information from different sensory modalities and from memory

176
Q

Antigen

A

Any substance that stimulates the production of an antibody or antibodies in the body of a vertebrate

177
Q

Antigen determinant

A

The specific region of an antigen that is recognised and bound by a specific antibody.

178
Q

Antigen presenting cell

A

In cellular immunity, a cell that ingests and digests an antigen and then exposes fragments of that antigen to the outside of the cell, bound to proteins in the cell’s plasma membrane

179
Q

B cell

A

A type of lymphocyte involved in the humoral immune response of vertebrates. Upon recognising an antigenic determinant, a B cell develops into a plasma cell, which secretes an antibody

180
Q

Antibody

A

One of the myriad proteins produced by the immune system that specifically binds to a foreign substance in blood or other tissue fluids and initiates its removal from the body

181
Q

Complement

A

A group of 11 proteins that play a role in some reactions of the immune system (not immunoglobulins). They attach to substances on the pathogen or to an antibody bound to pathogen and help phagocytes to recognise and kill the pathogen.

182
Q

Cytokine

A

A regulatory protein made by immune system cells that affects other target cells in the immune system

183
Q

Histamine

A

A substance released by damaged tissue, or by mast cells in response to allergens. Histamine increases vascular permeability, leading to edema (swelling).

184
Q

Immunogen

A

An antigen or any substance that may be specifically bound by components of the immune system

185
Q

Inflammation

A

A nonspecific, innate defence against pathogens; characterised by redness, swelling, pain and increased temperature

186
Q

Leukocytes

A

White Blood Cells - cells in the blood plasma that play defensive roles in the immune system

187
Q

Lymphocytes

A

One of the two major classes of white blood cells; includes T cells, B cells, and other cell types important in the immune system

188
Q

Lymphatic System

A

A system of vessels that returns interstitial fluid to the blood

189
Q

Lymph

A

A fluid derived from blood and other tissues that accumulates in intercellular spaces throughout the body and is returned to the blood by the lymphatic system

190
Q

Lymph Node

A

A specialised structure in the lymph vessels of the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes contain lymphocytes, which encounter and respond to foreign cells and molecules in the lymph as it passes through the vessels

191
Q

T cell

A

A type of lymphocyte involved in the cellular immune response. The final stages of its development occur in the Thymus gland.

192
Q

T-helper cell

A

Type of T cell that stimulates events in both the cellular and the humoral immune responses by binding to the antigen on an an antigen-presenting cell (target of HIV-I)

193
Q

T-cytotoxic cell

A

Cell of the cellular immune system that recognise and directly eliminate virus-infected cells

194
Q

T cell receptors

A

Proteins on the surface of a T cell that recognises the antigenic determinant for which the cell is specific

195
Q

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)/ MHC Molecules

A

MHC is a group of genes that code for membrane bound glycoproteins that direct recognition of self from non-self.
Class I found on all nucleated cells, when infected display pathogen or abnormal antigens to be recognised as non-self by T-helper cells.
Class II found on macrophages, B cells and dendritic cells, present pathogen antigens to T-helper cells.

196
Q

Macrophage

A

Phagocyte that engulfs pathogens by endocytosis

197
Q

Phagocyte

A

One of the two major classes of white blood cells; one of the non specific defences of animals; ingests invading microorganisms by phagocytosis.

198
Q

Mast Cells

A

Cells, typically found in connective tissue near barriers of internal/external environment, that release histamine in response to tissue damage

199
Q

Memory Cell

A

Long-lived lymphocytes produced after exposure to an antigen. They persist in the body and are able to mount a rapid response to subsequent exposures of the antigen

200
Q

Plasma cell

A

An antibody secreting cell that develops from a B cell; the effector cell of the humoral immune response

201
Q

Pathogen

A

An organism that causes disease

202
Q

Immunity

A

In animals, the ability to avoid disease when invaded by a pathogen by deploying various defence mechanisms

203
Q

Immunological memory

A

The capacity to more rapidly and massively respond to a second exposure to an antigen than occurred on the first exposure.

204
Q

Vaccination

A

Injection of a weakened/attenuated virus or bacteria or their proteins into the body, to induce immunity

205
Q

Humoral Immune Response

A

The response of the immune system mediated by B cells that produces circulating antibodies active against extracellular bacteria and viral infections

206
Q

Cellular Immune Response

A

Immune response mediated by T cells and directed against parasites, fungi, intracellular viruses and foreign tissues (grafts).

207
Q

Totipotent

A

Possessing all of the genetic information and other capacities necessary to form an entire individual organism

208
Q

Pluripotent

A

Having the ability to form all of the cells in the body

209
Q

Multipotent

A

Having the ability to differentiate into a limited number of cell types

210
Q

Embryonic Stem (ES) cell

A

Pluripotent cells in the blastocyst

211
Q

induced Pluripotent Stem (iPS) cell

A

Multipotent or pluripotent animal stem cell produced from differentiated cells in vitro by the addition of several genes that are expressed

212
Q

Somatic Stem Cell

A

Multipotent bodily cell

213
Q

Stem Cell

A

In animals, an undifferentiated cell that is capable of continuous proliferation. Generates more stem cells and a large clone of differentiated progeny cells.

214
Q

Zygote

A

The cell created by the union of two gametes, in which the gamete nuclei are also fused.

215
Q

Blastocyst

A

An early embryo formed by the first divisions of the fertilised egg (zygote). In mammals, a hollow ball of cells.

216
Q

Trophoblast

A

At the 32-cell stage of mammalian development, the outer group of cells that will become part of the placenta and thus nourish the growing embryo

217
Q

Inner Cell Mass

A

Will give rise to the yolk sac and embryo

218
Q

heterotrophs

A

An organism that requires performed organic molecules as food

219
Q

Autotroph

A

An organism that is capable of living exclusively on inorganic materials, water, and some energy source such as sunlight or chemically reduced matter

220
Q

Macronutrients

A

A mineral element required in large amounts

221
Q

Micronutrient

A

A mineral element required in concentrations of less than 100 micrograms per day

222
Q

Vitamin

A

An organic compound that an organism cannot synthesise but nevertheless requires in small quantities for normal growth and metabolism

223
Q

Vitamin B1, Thiamin

A

Coenzyme in cellular respiration. Deficiency causes muscle weakness (beriberi), weight loss, irritability, loss of appetite and forgetfulness. In fresh vegetables, fruit, liver, cereals and yeast. Non Fat Soluble.

224
Q

Vitamin C, abscorbic acid

A

Aids formation of connective tissues, prevents oxidation of cellular constituents. Deficiency is scurvy: exhaustion and weakness, softening of gums, foul breath, diarrhoea. In fresh fruit and veg. Non Fat Soluble.

225
Q

Vitamin D, Calciferol

A

Aids absorption of calcium and phosphorus. Deficiency is rickets, or sub-clinically, depression. In sunlight and milk. Fat soluble.

226
Q

Essential Amino Acids

A

Amino Acids that an animal cannot synthesise for itself and must obtain from food (8 of them).

227
Q

Essential Fatty Acids

A

Fatty acids that an animal cannot synthesise for itself and must obtain from food.

228
Q

Saprobes

A

Organisms that obtain carbon and energy directly form dead organic matter.

229
Q

Detritivores

A

Organisms that obtain energy from waste products of other organisms

230
Q

Filter Feeders

A

Organisms that trap tiny particles or organisms suspended in water

231
Q

Predators

A

Organisms that catch and kill other organisms for food

232
Q

Leptin

A

A hormone produced by fat cells that is believed to provide feedback information to the hypothalamus about the status of the body’s fat reserves

233
Q

Physical Digestion

A

Physical breakdown of food to smaller particles by grinding or chewing to increase surface area

234
Q

Enzymatic Digestion

A

Breakdown of complex molecules by hydrolytic enzymes into monomers that can be absorbed and utilised by cells

235
Q

Incisors

A

Teeth for cutting, chopping or gnawing

236
Q

Canines

A

Teeth for stabbing, ripping and shredding

237
Q

Molars and Premolars

A

Teeth for shearing, crushing and grinding

238
Q

Amylase

A

An enzyme found in saliva and secreted by the pancreas that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch, usually to maltose or glucose

239
Q

Peristalsis

A

Wavelike muscular contractions proceeding along a tubular organ, propelling the contents along the tube

240
Q

Gastric Pits

A

Deep infoldings in the walls of the stomach lined with secretory cells

241
Q

Chief Cells

A

One of three types of secretory cell found in the gastric pits of the stomach wall. Chief cells secrete pepsinongen, which becomes the protein digesting-enzyme pepsin.

242
Q

Parietal Cells

A

One of three types of secretory cell found in the gastric pits of the stomach wall. Parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid (HCl), via a chloride bicarbonate exchange using cotransport across the membrane. Thos creates an acidic environment that destroys many of the harmful organisms ingested with food and converts pepsinogen to pepsin.

243
Q

Mucosal Epithelium

A

An epithelial cell layer containing cells that secrete mucus

244
Q

Bile

A

A secretion of the liver made up of bile salts synthesised from cholesterol, various phospholipids and bilirubin (the breakdown product of haemoglobin). Emulsifies fats in the small intestine

245
Q

Lipase

A

An enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down fats into di and monoglycerides, fatty acids and glycerol

246
Q

Trypsin

A

An enzyme secreted by the pancreas that breaks down proteins to large peptides

247
Q

Carboxypeptidase

A

An enzyme secreted by the pancreas that targets the COOH end of peptides and breaks them down to smaller peptides and amino acids

248
Q

Aminopeptidase

A

An enzyme of the small intestine that targets the amine end of peptides and breaks them down to smaller peptides and amino acids

249
Q

Duodenum

A

The beginning portion of the vertebrate small intestine, the site of most digestion

250
Q

Dejunum

A

The middle division of the small intestine, where most absorption of nutrients occurs

251
Q

Ileum

A

The final segment of the small intestine

252
Q

Nuclease

A

Nucleic Acids –> Nucleotides

253
Q

Maltase

A

Maltose –> Glucose

254
Q

Lactase

A

Lactose –> Galactose and Glucose

255
Q

Sucrase

A

Sucrose –> Fructose and Glucose

256
Q

Enteric NErvous System

A

The nerve nets in the submucosa and between the smooth muscle layers of the vertebrate gut. Control the gut and in constant communication with the CNS

257
Q

Villi

A

Hairlike projections from the walls of the small intestine. Have microvilli. Increase surface area for digestion.

258
Q

Circulatory System

A

A physiological system consisting of a muscular pump (heart), a fluid (blood or haemolymph), and a series of conduits (blood vessels) that transports materials around the body.

259
Q

Open Circulatory System

A

Circulatory system in which extracellular fluid leaves the vessels of the circulatory system, percolates between cells and through tissues, and then flows back into the circulatory system to be pumped out again.

260
Q

Closed Circulatory System

A

Circulatory System in which the circulating fluid is contained within a continuous series of vessels.

261
Q

Atrium

A

In the hearts of vertebrates, the thin walled chamber(S) entered by blood on its way to the ventricle(s)

262
Q

Ventricle

A

A muscular heart chamber that pumps blood through the lungs or through the body.

263
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

Portion of the circulatory system by which oxygenated blood from the lungs or gills is distributed throughout the rest of the body and returned to the heart.

264
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

Portion of the circulatory system by which blood is pumped from the heart to the gills or lungs for oxygenation and back to the heart for distribution.

265
Q

Aorta

A

The main trunk of arteries leading to the systemic circulation

266
Q

Vena Cavae

A

In the circulatory systems of crocodilians, birds and mammals, large veins that empty into the right atrium of the heart

267
Q

Tricuspid (mitral) valve

A

The valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart

268
Q

Aortic Valve

A

A one-way valve between the left ventricle of the heart and the aorta that prevents back-flow into the ventricle when it relaxes

269
Q

Pulmonary Valve

A

A one-way valve between the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary artery that prevents back-flow of blood into the ventricle when it relaxes.

270
Q

Systold

A

Contraction of a chamber of the heart, driving blood forward in the circulatory system

271
Q

Diastole

A

The portion of the cardiac cycle when the heart muscle relaxes.

272
Q

Cardiomyopathy

A

Chronic disease of the heart muscle. Can be dilated (weak and enlarged heart), hypertrophic (heart muscle is thickened), or restrictive (heart muscle is stiff).

273
Q

Artery

A

A muscular blood vessel carrying blood away from the heart to other parts of the body. Arteries have more elastin, more smooth muscle and more fibrous collagen in the tunica adventitia. Blood is under high pressure.

274
Q

Arteriole

A

A small blood vessel arising from an artery that feeds blood into a capillary bed. A resistance vessel.

275
Q

Vein

A

A blood vessel that returns blood to the heart. Veins have less collagen, elastin and smooth muscle. Blood is under low pressure and there are valves to prevent back-flow. Veins are capacitance vessels.

276
Q

Venule

A

A small blood vessel draining a capillary bed that joins others of its kind to form a vein

277
Q

Capillary Beds

A

Networks of capillaries where materials are exchanged between the blood and interstitial fluid

278
Q

Vascular Smooth Muscle

A

The smooth muscle that makes up blood vessels

279
Q

Endothelium

A

The single layer of epithelial cells lining the interior of a blood vessel

280
Q

Osmotic pressure

A

The force driving fluid into capillaries because of differences in water potential

281
Q

Artherosclerosis

A

A disease of the arteries characterised by the deposition of fatty material on their inner walls.

282
Q

Sphygmomanometer

A

An instrument for measuring blood pressure, typically consisting of an inflatable rubber cuff which is applied to the arm, enabling the determination of systolic and diastolic blood pressure by increasing and gradually decreasing the pressure in the cuff. Tapping = systolic, end of whoosh = diastolic

283
Q

Pacemaker cells

A

Cardiac cells that can initiate action potentials without stimulation from the nervous system, allowing the heart to initiate its own contractions

284
Q

Sinoatrial node

A

The pacemaker of the mammalian heart, initiates action potentials that spread throughout the atria, resulting in a contraction.

285
Q

Atrioventricular node

A

A modified node of cardiac muscle that organises the action potentials that control contraction of the ventricles.

286
Q

Bundle of His

A

Fibres of modified cardiac muscle that conduct action potentials from the atria (AVN) to the ventricular muscle mass.

287
Q

Purkinje Fibres

A

Branches of the Bundle of His

288
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

The portion of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary functions

289
Q

Mean arterial pressure

A

Average blood pressure in an individual over a single cardiac cycle

290
Q

Sympathetic Nervous System

A

The division of the autonomic system that works on fight or flight response

291
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A

The division of the autonomic nervous system that is rest and digest

292
Q

Adrenalin

A

The “fight or flight” hormone produced in the medulla of the adrenal gland. Also functions as a neurotransmitter.

293
Q

Noradrenalin

A

A neurotransmitter found in the CNS and also at the postganglionic nerve endings of the sympathetic nervous system. Causes vasoconstriction

294
Q

Nitric Oxide

A

An unstable molecule that serves as a second messenger causing smooth muscle to relax

295
Q

Barorecptor

A

A pressure sensing cell or organ

296
Q

Chemoreceptor

A

A sensory receptor cell that senses specific molecules in the environment

297
Q

Vasoconstriction

A

Constriction of blood vessels

298
Q

Vasodilation

A

Dilation of blood vessels

299
Q

Internal respiration

A

Occurs in the metabolising tissues, where oxygen diffuses out of the blood and Carbon Dioxide out of the cells

300
Q

External Respiration

A

Occurs in the lungs, where oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide into the air

301
Q

Aerobic Respiration

A

The process of producing cellular energy in the presence of oxygen

302
Q

Ventilation

A

Physically breathing

303
Q

Oxygen Binding Curve

A

The affinity of oxygen carrier proteins for oxygen at different partial pressures

304
Q

Partial Pressure

A

The component of total pressure exhibited by a single free gas within a mixture of gasses

305
Q

Respiratory Pigments

A

A molecule that increases the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood.

306
Q

Haemoglobin

A

Oxygen-transporting protein found in red blood cells of vertebrates and some invertebrates. Consists of four peptide units, each with a haeme group.

307
Q

Myoglobin

A

An oxygen -binding molecule found in muscle. Consists of a haeme unit and a single globin chain; carries less oxygen that haemoglobin but has a greater affinity for it.

308
Q

Gill

A

An organ specialised for gas exchange with water. Water flows in one direction over the lamellae and oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream

309
Q

Operculum

A

The protective cover of a gill

310
Q

Bronchus

A

The major airway(s) branching off the trachea into the vertebrate lung

311
Q

Bronchioles

A

The smallest airways in the vertebrate lung, branching off the bronchi.

312
Q

Trachea

A

A tube that carries air to the bronchi of the lungs of vertebrates

313
Q

Surfactant

A

A substance that decreases the surface tension of a liquid. Lung surfactant, secreted by cells of teh alveoli, is mostly phospholipid and decreases the amount of work necessary to inflate the lungs.

314
Q

Thoracic Cavity

A

The portion of the mammalian body cavity bounded by the ribs, shoulders, and diaphragm. Contain the heart and lungs.

315
Q

Pleural Cavity.

A

The thin, fluid filled space between the two pulmonary plurae (visceral and parietal) of each lung

316
Q

Diaphragm

A

A sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities in mammals; responsible for breathing

317
Q

Intercostal Muscles

A

Muscles between the ribs that can augment breathing movements by elevating and suppressing the ribcage

318
Q

Hypoxia

A

A deficiency of oxygen

319
Q

Hypocapnia

A

A deficiency of carbon dioxide

320
Q

Osmoconformer

A

An aquatic animal that equilibrates the osmolarity of its extracellular fluid to be the same as that of the external environment

321
Q

Osmoregulator

A

An aquatic animal that actively regulates the osmolarity of its extracellular fluid

322
Q

Osmolarity

A

The concentration of osmotically active particles in a solution

323
Q

Hypoosmotic

A

A solution with a lesser concentration of solute

324
Q

Hyperosmotic

A

A solution with a higher concentration of solute

325
Q

Renal cortex

A

The outer portion of the kidneys between the renal capsule and the renal medulla. Contains the “heads” of nephrons.

326
Q

Renal Medulla

A

The innermost portion of the kidneys. Contains the “tails” of nephrons

327
Q

Ureter

A

Long duct leading from the vertebrate kidney to the urinary bladder

328
Q

Nephron

A

The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a structure for receiving a filtrate of blood and a tubule that reabsorbs selected parts of the filtrate

329
Q

Glomerulus

A

Sites in the kidney where blood filtration takes place. Each glomerulus consists of a knot of capillaries served by afferent and efferent arterioles.

330
Q

Bowman’s Capsule

A

An elaboration of the renal tubule, composed of podocytes, that surrounds and collects the filtrate from the glomerulus

331
Q

Renal Tubule

A

A structural unit of the kidney that collects filtrate from the blood, reabsorbs specific ions, nutrients, and water and returns them to the blood, and concentrates excess ions and waste products such as urea for excretion from the body

332
Q

Renal Filtrate

A

The contents of the renal tubule

333
Q

Aquaporins

A

A transport protein in plant and animal cell membranes through which water passes in osmosis.

334
Q

Proximal Convoluted Tubule

A

The initial segment of the renal tubule in the kidney, closest to the glomerulus. PCT cells actively transport out Na+, amino acids and glucose from the renal filtrate, causing water to follow by osmosis and be picked up by the Vasa Recta

335
Q

Loop of Henle.

A

Long, hairpin loop of the mammalian renal tubule that runs from the cortex down into the medulla and back to the cortex; creates a concentration gradient in the interstitial fluids of the medulla

336
Q

Distal Convoluted Tubule

A

The portion of a renal tubule from where it reaches the renal cortex, just past the loop of Henle, to where it joins a collecting duct. Renal fluid becomes isotonic here.

337
Q

Collecting Duct

A

In vertebrates, a tubule that receives urine produced in the nephrons of the kidney and delivers that fluid to the ureter for excretion. Water reabsorption occurs here, harvesting the concentration gradient set up by the loop of Henle.

338
Q

Antideuretic Hormone

A

(ADH or Vasopressin). A hormone that promotes water reabsorption by the kidney. Produced by neurons in the hypothalamus and released from nerve terminals in the posterior pituitary

339
Q

Haemorrhage

A

Excessive Bleeding

340
Q

Renin

A

An enzyme released from the kidneys in response to a drop in the glomerular filtration rate. Together with angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin.

341
Q

Angiotensin

A

A peptide hormone that raises blood pressure by causing peripheral vessels to constrict. Also maintains glomerular filtration by constricting efferent vessels and stimulates thirst and the release of aldosterone.

342
Q

Aldosterone

A

A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex of mammals. Promotes secretion of potassium and reabsorption of sodium in the kidney. Increases water reabsorption.

343
Q

Taxonomy

A

The branch of science concerned with classification, especially of organisms.

344
Q

Protostome

A

Bilateria where the blastopore forms the mouth

345
Q

Deuterostome

A

Bilateria where the blastopore forms the anus

346
Q

Blastopore

A

The opening created by the invagination of the vegetal pore during gastrulation of animal embryos.

347
Q

Bilateral Symmetry

A

The condition in which only the right and left sides of an organism, divided by a single plane through the midline, are mirror images of each other.

348
Q

Radial Symmetry

A

The condition in which any two halves of a body are mirror images of each other, providing the cut passes through the centre.

349
Q

Coelom

A

An animal body cavity, enclosed by muscular mesoderm and lined with a mesodermal layer called peritoneum that also surrounds the internal organs.

350
Q

Ectoderm

A

The outermost of the three embryonic germ layers first delineated during gastrulation. Gives rise to the skin, sense organs, and nervous system.

351
Q

Endoderm

A

The innermost of the three embryonic germ layers delineated during gastrulation. Gives rise to the digestive and respiratory tracts and structures associated with them.

352
Q

Mesoderm

A

The middle of the three embryonic germ layers first delineated during gastrulation. Gives rise to the skeleton, circulatory system, muscles, excretory system and most of the reproductive system.

353
Q

Clade

A

A monophyletic group made up of an ancestor and all its descendants.

354
Q

Notochord

A

A flexible rod of gelatinous material serving as a support in the embryos of all chordates and in the adults of tunicates and lancelets.

355
Q

Amnion

A

The fluid filled sac within which the embryos of reptiles, birds and mammals develop.

356
Q

Paraphyletic

A

Pertaining to a group containing the common ancestor but not all its descendents

357
Q

Polyphyletic

A

Pertaining to a group that consists of multiple distantly related organisms, and does not include the common ancestor of the group.

358
Q

Monophyletic

A

Pertaining to a group that consists of an ancestor and all of its descendants.

359
Q

Platyhelminthes

A

Protostome
Flat worms
acoelomate - eg. tape worm

360
Q

Anelida

A

Protostome
Earthworms, leeches, polychatae worms
segmented body plan

361
Q

Mollusca

A 
Protostome
Ancestral Shell and mantle
Gastropods (slugs and snails)
Bivalves (clams, oysters, mussels)
Cephalopods (squid, cuttlefish, octopi)
362
Q

Nematoda

A

Protostome

eg hookworm, pinworm guinea worm

363
Q

Arthropoda

A 
Protostome
exoskeleton and jointed appendages
- arachnida (class)
- crustacea
- insecta
364
Q

Germ Cells

A

A reproductive cell or gamete of multicellular organisms

365
Q

Somatic Cell

A

All the cells of the body that are not specialised for reproduction

366
Q

Oviparity

A

Reproduction in which eggs are released by the female and development is external to the mother;s body

367
Q

Viviparity

A

Reproduction in which fertilization of the egg and development of the embryo occur inside the mother’s body

368
Q

Gametogenesis

A

The specialised series of cellular divisions that leads to the production of gametes

369
Q

Oogenesis

A

Gametogenesis leading to production of an ovum

370
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

Gametogenesis leading to the production of sperm

371
Q

Budding

A

Asexual Reproduction in which a more or less complete new organism grows from the body of the parent organism, eventually detaching itself.

372
Q

Regeneration

A

The development of a complete individual from a fragment of an organism

373
Q

Parthenogenesis

A

Production of an organism from an unfertilised egg.

374
Q

Spermatogonia

A

In animals, the diploid progeny of a germ cell in males

375
Q

Spermatid

A

One of the products of the second meiotic division of a primary spermatocyte; four haploid spermatids which remain connected by cytoplasmic bridges are produced. for each primary spermatocyte that goes into meiosis

376
Q

Primary Spermatocyte

A

The diploid progeny of a spermatogonium; undergoes the first meiotic division to form secondary spermatocytes

377
Q

Secondary Spermatocyte

A

One of the products of the first meiotic division of a primary spermatocyte.

378
Q

Sertoli Cells

A

Cells in the seminiferous tubules that nurture the developing sperm

379
Q

Seminiferous tubules

A

The tubules within the testes within which sperm production occurs

380
Q

Oogonia

A

In animals, the diploid progeny of a germ cell in females

381
Q

Primary Oocyte

A

The diploid progeny of an oogonium. In many species, a primary oocyte enters prophase of the first meiotic division, then remains in developmental arrest for a long time before resuming meiosis to form a secondary oocyte and a polar body

382
Q

Secondary Oocyte

A

In oogenesis, the daughter cell of the first meiotic division that receives almost all the cytoplasm

383
Q

Polar body

A

A nonfunctional nucleus produced by meiosis during oogenesis

384
Q

Ootid

A

In oogenesis, the daughter cell of the second meiotic division that differentiates into the mature ovum

385
Q

Follicle

A

In female mammals, and immature egg surrounded by nutritive cells

386
Q

Corpus Luteum

A

A structure formed from a follicle after ovulation; produces hormones important to the maintenance of pregnancy

387
Q

Fertilisation

A

Union of gametes

388
Q

Zona Pellucida

A

A jelly-like substance that surrounds the mammalian ovum when it is released from the ovary

389
Q

Acrosome

A

The structure at the forward tip of an animal sperm which is the first to fuse with the egg membrane and enter the egg cell

390
Q

Epididymus

A

Coiled tubules in the testes that store sperm and conduct sperm from the seminiferous tubules to the vas deferens

391
Q

Vas deferens

A

Duct that transfers sperm from the epididymus to the urethra

392
Q

Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone

A

Hormone produced by the hypothalamus that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete gonadotropins

393
Q

Luteinizing Hormone

A

A gonadotropin produced by the anterior pituitary that stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones

394
Q

Follicle Stimulating Hormone

A

A gonadotropin produced by the anterior pituitary

395
Q

Leydig Cells

A

Cells between the sertoli cells in the testes that produce testosterone

396
Q

Theca Cells

A

Comprise a layer of ovarian follicles. Produce testosterone from cholesterol in the presence of LH

397
Q

Granulosa

A

A somatic cell of the sex cord that is closely associated with the developing female gamete. Produces oestrodiol from testosterone in the presence of FSH

398
Q

Oestrogen

A

Any of several steroid sex hormones; produced chiefly by the ovaries in mammals

399
Q

Progesterone

A

A female sex hormone that maintains pregnancy

400
Q

holoblastic cleavage

A

Embryo cell cleavage that occurs in the absence of a large concentration of yolk, complete cleavage.

401
Q

Blastomere

A

Any of the cells produced by the early divisions of a fertilised animal egg

402
Q

Zygote

A

The cell created by the union of two gametes, in which the gamete nuclei are also fused. The earliest stage of the diploid generation.

403
Q

Embryo

A

A young animal while it is still contained within a protective structure such as an egg or uterus

404
Q

Compaction

A

Event in early cleavage stage mammalian embryo during which blastomeres become tightly joined, forming gap junctions enabling the exchange of ions and small molecules to pass from one cell to the next. The formation of an epithelium, a morula.

405
Q

Cadherin

A

Transmembrane protein group that plays important roles in cell adhesion, forming adheron junctions to bind cells within tissues.

406
Q

Morula

A

A solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilised ovum, and from which a blastula is formed

407
Q

Blastulation

A

The formation of a blastula from a morula

408
Q

Blastula

A

An early stage of the animal embryo; in many species, a hollow sphere of cells surrounding a central cavity, the blastocoel.

409
Q

Blastocyst

A

An early embryo formed by the first divisions of the fertilised egg (zygote). In mammals, a hollow ball of cells.

410
Q

Blastocoel

A

The central, hollow cavity of a blastula

411
Q

Blastodisc

A

An embryo that forms as a disc of cells on the surface of a large yolk mass; comparable to a blastula, but occurring in animals such as birds and reptiles, in which the massive yolk restricts cleavage.

412
Q

Aerobic Glycolysis

A

The conversion of glucose to lactate in the presence of oxygen

413
Q

Glycocalyx

A

A glycoprotein-polysaccharide covering that surrounds the cell membranes of some bacteria, epithelia and other cells. Most animal cells have a fuzz-like coat on the external surface of their plasma membrane

414
Q

Decidua

A

The term for the uterine lining (endometrium) during pregnancy, which forms the maternal part of the placenta

415
Q

Cytoplasmic Segregation

A

The asymmetrical distribution of cytoplasmic determinants in a developing animal embryo

416
Q

Cytoplasmic Determinants

A

In animal development, gene products whose spatial distribution may determine such things as embryonic axes

417
Q

B-catenin

A

A transcription factor produced from maternal mRNA

418
Q

GSK-3

A

A protein kinase that phosphorylates and degrades B-catenin

419
Q

Vegetal Hemisphere

A

The lower portion of some animal cells, zygotes and embryos, in which the dense nutrient yolk settles. The vegetal pole is to the very bottom of the egg or embryo

420
Q

Animal hemisphere

A

The metabolically active upper portion of some animal eggs, zygotes and embryos; does not contain the dense nutrient yolk

421
Q

Complete cleavage

A

Pattern of cleavage that occurs in eggs that have little yolk. Early cleavage furrows divide the egg completely and the blastomeres are of similar size.

422
Q

Incomplete cleavage

A

A pattern of cleavage that occurs in many eggs that have a lot of yolk. Early cleavage furrows do not penetrate all of it.

423
Q

Discoidal Cleavage

A

In animal development, a type of incomplete cleavage that is common in fishes, reptiles and birds. Results in a blastodisc

424
Q

Superficial Cleavage

A

A variation of incomplete cleavage in which cycles of mitosis occur without cell division, producing a syncytium (a single cell with many nuclei).

425
Q

Radial Cleavage

A

Cleavage where mitotic spindles form parallel or perpendicular to the animal-vegetal axis.

426
Q

Spiral Cleavage

A

Cleavage where cell layers form at oblique angles to the animal-vegetal axis

427
Q

Rotational cleavage

A

First cell division is parallel to the animal-vegetal axis, next division is at right angles: one parallel, the other perpendicular

428
Q

Mosaic Development

A

Pattern of animal embryonic development in which each blastomere contributes a specific par of the adult body. If one blastomere is removed, the embryo will not form.

429
Q

Regulative Development

A

A pattern of animal embryonic development in which the fates of the first blastomeres are not absolutely fixed. If a blastomere is removed, the embryo can still form.

430
Q

Archenteron

A

The earliest primordial animal digestive tract.

431
Q

Mesenchyme

A

Embryonic or unspecialised cells derived from the mesoderm.

432
Q

Blastopore

A

The opening created by the invagination of the vegetal pole during gastrulation of animal embryos

433
Q

Grey Crescent

A

In frog development, a band of diffusely pigmented cytoplasm on the side of the egg opposite the site of sperm entry. Arises as a result of cytoplasmic rearrangements that establish the anterior-posterior axis of the zygote.

Biomolecules and Cells (2 decks)

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