Glossary Flashcards
abacus
The flat slab at the top of a capital, directly under the entablature.
abbey church
An abbey is a monastic religious community headed by an abbot or abbess. An abbey church often has an especially large choir to provide space for the monks or nuns.
absolute dating
A method, especially in archaeology, of assigning a precise historical date at which, or span of years during which, an object was made. Based on known and recorded events in the region, as well as technically extracted physical evidence (such as carbon-14 disintegration).
abstract
Of art that does not attempt to describe the appearance of visible forms but rather to transform them into stylized patterns or to alter them in conformity to ideals.
academy
An institution established for the training of artists. Academies date from the Renaissance and after; they were particularly powerful, state-run institutions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In general, academies replaced guilds as the venues where students learned the craft of art and were educated in art theory. Academies helped the recognition of artists as strained specialists, rather than craftspeople, and promoted their social status. An academician is an academy-trained artist.
acanthus
A Mediterranean plant whose leaves are reproduced in Classical architectural ornament used on moldings, friezes, and capitals.
acroterion (pl. acroteria)
An ornament at the corner or peak of a roof
Action painting
Using broad gestures to drip or pour paint onto a pictorial surface. Associated with mid-twentieth-century American Abstract Expressionists, such as Jackson Pollock
adobe
Sun-baked blocks made of clay mixed with straw. Also: buildings made with this material.
aedicula
A decorative architectural frame, usually found around a niche, door, or window. an aedicula is made up of a pediment and entablature supported by columns or pilasters
agora
An open space in a Greek town used as a central gathering place or market. Compare forum.
aisle
Passage or open corridor of a church, hall, or other building that parallels the main space, usually on both sides, and is delineated by a row, or arcade, of columns or piers. Called side aisles when they flank the nave of a church.
akropolis
The citadel of an ancient Greek city, located at its h highest point and housing temples, a treasury, and sometimes a royal palace. The most famous is the Akropolis in Athens.
album
A book, consisting of a series of paintings or prints (album leaves) mounted into book form.
allegory
In a work of art, an image (or images) that symbolizes an idea, concept, or principle, often moral or religious.
alloy
A mixture of metals; different metals melted together.
altarpiece
A painted or carved panel or ensemble of panels placed at the back of or behind and above an altar. Contains religious imagery (often specific to the place of worship for which it was made) that viewers can look at during liturgical ceremonies (especially the Eucharist) or personal devotions.
amalaka
In Hindu architecture, the circular or square-shaped element on top of a spire (shikhara), often crowned with a finial, symbolizing the cosmos.
ambulatory
The passage (walkway) around the apse in a church, especially a basilica, or around the central space in a central-plan building.
amphora (pl. amphorae)
An ancient Greek or Roman jar for storing oil or wine, with an egg-shaped body and two curved handles.
animal style
Decoration made of interwoven animals or serpents, often found in early medieval Northern European art.
ankh
A looped cross signifying life, used by ancient Egyptians
apartheid
A political system in South Africa that used race as grounds for the segregation, discrimination, and political disenfranchisement of nonwhite South Africans. It officially ended in 1994.
appropriation
The practice of some Postmodern artists of adopting images in their entirety from other works of art or from visual culture for use in their own art. The act of recontextualizing the appropriated image allows the artist to critique both it and the time and place in which it was created.
apse
A large semicircular or polygonal (and usually vaulted) recess on an end wall or building. In a Christian church, it often contains the altar. “Apsidal” is the adjective describing the condition of having such a space.
arabesque
European term for a type of linear surface decoration based on foliage and calligraphic forms, thought by Europeans to be typical of Islamic art and usually characterized by flowing lines and swirling shapes.
arcade
A series of arches, carried by columns or piers and supporting a common wall or lintel. In a blind arcade, the arches and supports are engaged and have a purely decorative function.
arch
In architecture, a curved structural element that spans an open space. Built from wedge-shaped stone blocks called voussoirs placed together and held at the top by a trapezoidal keystone. It forms an effective space-spanning and weight-bearing unit, but requires buttresses at each side to contain the outward thrust cased by the weight of the structure.
corbeled arch
An arch or vault formed by courses of stones, each of which projects beyond the lower course until the space is enclosed; usually finished with a capstone.
horseshoe arch
An arch of more than a half-circle; typical of western Islamic architecture.
round arch
An arch that displaces most of the weight, or downward thrust, along its curving sides, transmitting that weight to adjacent supporting uprights (door or window jambs, columns, or piers).
ogival arch
a sharply pointed arch, created by S curves.
relieving arch
an arch built into a heavy wall just above a post-and-lintel structure (such as a gate, door, or window) to help support the wall above by transferring the load to the side walls.
transverse arch
an arch that connects the wall piers on both sides of an interior space, up and over a stone vault.
Archaic smile
The curved lips of ancient Greek statues in the period c. 600-480 BCE, usually interpreted as a way of animating facial features
architrave
The bottom element in an entablature, beneath the frieze and the cornice.
archivolt
A band of molding framing an arch, or a series of stone blocks that form an arch resting directly on flanking columns or piers.
ashlar
A highly finished, precisely cut block of stone. When laid in even courses, ashlar masonry creates a uniform face with fine joints. Often used as a facing on the visible exterior of a building, especially as a veneer for the façade. Also called dressed stone.
assemblage
Artwork created by gathering and manipulating two- and/or three-dimensional found objects
astragal
A thin convex decorative molding, often found on a Classical entablature, and usually decorated with a continuous row of beadlike circles.
atelier
The studio or workshop of a master artist or craftsperson, often including junior associates and apprentices.
atrial cross
A cross placed in the atrium of a church. In colonial America, used to mark a gathering and teaching place.
atrium
An unroofed interior courtyard or room in a Roman house, sometimes having a pool or garden, sometimes surrounded by columns. Also: the open courtyard in front of a Christian church; or an entrance area in modern architecture.
automatism
A technique in which artist abandon the usual intellectual control over their brushes or pencils to allow the subconscious to create the artwork without rational interference.
avant-garde
Term derived from the French military wok meaning “Before the group”, or “vanguard”. Avant-garde denotes those artists or concepts of a strikingly new, experimental, or radical nature for their time.
axis
In pictures, an implied line around which elements are composed or arranged. In buildings, a dominant line around which parts of the structure are organized and along which human movement or attention is concentrated.
axis mundi
A concept of an “axis of the world”, which marks sacred sites and denotes a link between the human and celestial realms. For example, in South Asian art, the axis mundi can be marked by monumental free-standing decorative pillars.
baldacchino
A canopy (whether suspended from the ceiling, projecting from a wall, or supported by columns) placed over an honorific or sacred space, such as a throne or church altar.
barbarian
A term used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to label all foreigners outside their cultural orbit (for example, Celts, Goths, Vikings). The word derives from an imitation of what the “barblings” of their language sounded like to those who could not understand it.
bas-relief
Another term for low relief (“bas” is the French word for “low”).
basilica
A large rectangular buildings. Often built with a clerestory, side aisles separated from the center nave by colonnades, and an apse at one or both ends. Originally Roman centers for administration, later adapted to Christian church use.
bay
A unit of space defined by architectural elements such as columns, piers, and walls.
beehive tomb
A corbel-vaulted tomb, conical in shape like a beehive, and covered by an earthen mound
Benday dots
In modern printing and typesetting, the individual dots that, together with many others, make up lettering and images. Often machine- or computer-generated, the dots are very small and closely spaced to give the effect of density and richness of tone.
bilum
Netted bags made mainly by women throughout the central highlands of New Guinea. The bags can be used for everyday purposes or even to carry the bones of the recently deceased as a sign of mourning.
biomorphic
Denoting the biologically or organically inspired shapes and forms that were routinely included in abstracted Modern art in the early twentieth century.
black-figure
A technique of ancient Greet ceramic decoration in which black figures are painted on a red clay ground. Compare red-figure.
blackware
A ceramic technique that produces pottery with a primarily black surface with matte and glossy patterns on the surface.
bodhisattva
In Buddhism, a being who has attained enlightenment but chooses to remain in this world in order to help others advance spiritually. Also defined as a potential buddha.
Book of Hours
A prayer book for private use, containing a calendar, services for the canonical hours, and sometimes special prayers.
boss
A decorative knoblike element that can be found in many places, e.g. at the intersection of a Gothic rib vault or as a buttonlike projection on metalwork.
bracket, bracketing
An architectural element that projects from a wall to support a horizontal part of a building, such as beams or the eaves of a roof.
burin
A metal instrument used in engraving to cut lines into the metal plate. The sharp end of the burin is trimmed to give a diamond-shaped cutting point, while the other end is finished with a wooden handle that fits into the engraver’s palm.
buttress, buttressing
A projecting support built against an external wall, usually to counteract the lateral thrust of a vault or arch within. In Gothic church architecture, a flying buttress is an arched bridge above the aisle roof that extends from the upper nave wall, where the lateral thrust of the main vault is greatest, down to a solid pier.
cairn
A pile of stones or earth and stones that served both as a prehistoric burial site and as a marker for underground tombs.
calligraphy
Handwriting as an art form.
calotype
The first photographic process utilizing negatives and paper positives; invented by William Henry Fox Talbot in the late 1830s.
came (pl. cames)
A lead strip used in the making of leaded or stained-glass windows. Cames have an indented groove on the sides into which individual pieces of glass are fitted to make the overall design.
cameo
Gemstone, clay, glass, or shell having layers of color, carved in low relief (see under relief sculpture) to create an image and ground of different colors.
camera obscura
An early cameralike device used in the Renaissance and later for recording images from the real world. It consists of a dark box (or room) with a hole in one side (sometimes fitted with a lens). The camera obscura operates when bright light shines through the hole, casting an upside-down image of an object outside onto the inside wall of the box.
canon of proportions
A set of ideal mathematical ratios in art based on measurements, as in the proportional relationships between the basic elements of the human body.
canopic jar
In ancient Egyptian culture, a special jar used to store the major organs of a body before embalming.
capital
The sculpted block that tops a column. According to the conventions of the orders, capitals include different decorative elements (see order). A historiated capital is one displaying a figural composition and/or narrative scenes.
capriccio (pl. capricci)
A painting or print of a fantastic, imaginary landscape, usually with architecture.
capstone
The final, topmost stone in a corbeled arch or vault, which joins the sides and completes the structure.
cartoon
A full-scale drawing of a design that will be executed in another medium, such as wall painting, tapestry, or stained glass.
cartouche
A frame for a hieroglyphic inscription formed by a rope design surrounding an oval space. Used to signify a sacred or honored name. Also: in architecture, a decorative device or plaque, usually with a plain center used for inscriptions or epitaphs.
caryatid
A sculpture of a draped female figure acting as a column supporting an entablature
cassone (pl. cassoni)
An Italian dowry chest, often highly decorated with carvings, paintings, inlaid designs, and gilt embellishments.
catacomb
An underground cemetery consisting of tunnels on different levels, having niches for urns and sarcophagi and often incorporating rooms (cubicula).
cathedral
The principal Christian church in a diocese, the bishop’s administrative center and housing his throne (cathedra).
celadon
A high-fired transparent glaze of pale bluish-green hue whose principal coloring agent is an oxide of iron. In China and Korea, such glazes were typically applied over a pale gray stoneware body, though Chinese potters sometimes applied them over porcelain bodies during the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911) dynasties. Chinese potters invented celadon glazes and initiated the continuous production of celadon-glazed wares as early as the third century CE.
cella
The principal interior room at the center of a Greek or Roman temple within which the cult statue was usually housed. Also called the naos.
celt
A smooth, oblong stone or metal object, shape like an axe-head
cenotaph
A funerary monument commemorating an individual or group buried elsewhere.
centering
A temporary structure that supports a masonry arch, vault, or dome during construction until the mortar is fully dried and the masonry is self-sustaining.
central-plan building
Any structure designed with a primary central space surrounded by symmetrical areas on each side, e.g., a rotunda.
ceramics
A general term covering all types of wares made from fired clay.
chacmool
In Maya sculpture, a half-reclining figure probably representing an offering bearer.
chaitya
A type of Buddhist temple found in India. Often built in the form of a hall or basilica, a chaitya hall is highly decorated with sculpture and usually is carved from a cave or natural rock location. It houses a sacred shrine or stupa for worship.
chamfer
The slanted surface produced when an angle is trimmed or beveled, common in building and metalwork.
chasing
Ornamentation made on metal by incising or hammering the surface.
chateau (pl. chateaux)
A French country house or residential castle. A chateau fort is a military castle incorporating defensive works such as towers or battlements.
chattri
In Indian architecture, a decorative pavilion with an umbrella-shaped dome.
chevron
A decorative or heraldic motif of repeated Vs; a zigzag pattern
chiaroscuro
An Italian word designating the contrast of dark and light in a painting, drawing, or print. Chiaroscuro creates spatial depth and volumetric forms through gradations in the intensity of light and shadow.
choir
The part of the church reserved for the clergy, monks, or nuns, either between the transept crossing and the apse or extending farther into the nave; separated from the rest of the church by screens or walls and fitted with stalls (seats).
cista (pl. cistae)
Cylindrical containers used in antiquity by wealthy women as a case for toiletry articles such as a mirror.
clerestory
In a basilica, the topmost zone of a wall with windows, extending above the aisle roofs. Provides direct light into the nave.
cloisonne
An enameling technique in which artists affix wires or strips to a metal surface to delineate designs and create compartments (cloisons) that they subsequently fill with enamel.
cloister
An enclosed space open to the sky, especially within a monastery, surrounded by an arcaded walkway, often having a fountain and garden. Since the most important monastic buildings (e.g. refectory, church) open off the cloister, it represents the center of the monastic world.
codex (pl. codices)
A book, or a group of manuscript pages (folios) held together by stitching or other binding along one edge.
coffer
A recessed decorative panel used to decorate ceilings or vaults. Making coffers is called coffering.
coiling
A technique in basketry. In coiled baskets a spiraling coil, braid, or rope of material is held in place by stitching or interweaving to create a permanent design.
collage
A composition made of cut and pasted scraps of materials, sometimes with lines or forms added by the artist.
colonnade
A row of columns supporting a straight lintel (as in a porch or portico) or a series of arches (an arcade).
colophon
The data placed at the end of a book listing the book’s author, publisher, illuminator, and other information related to its production. In East Asian handscrolls, inscriptions which follow the paintings are also called colophons.
column
An architectural element used for support and/or decoration. Consists of a rounded or polygonal vertical shaft placed on a base and topped by a decorative capital. In Classical architecture, columns are built in accordance with the rules of one of the architectural orders. They can be free-standing or attached to a background wall (engaged).
combine
Term used by Robert Rauschenberg to describe his works that combined painting and nontraditional sculptural elements.
commodification
Treating goods, services, ideas, or art merely as things to be bought or sold.
complementary color
The primary and secondary colors across from each other on the color wheel (red and green; blue and orange; yellow and purple). When juxtaposed, the intensity of both colors increased. When mixed together, they negate each other to make a neutral gray-brown.
Composite pose or image
Combining different viewpoints within a single representation.
Composition
The overall arrangement, organizing design, or structure of a work of art.
connoisseur
A French word meaning “an expert” and signifying one who values and evaluates art based primarily on formal, visual, and stylistic analysis. A connoisseur studies the style and technique of an object to assess its relative quality and identify its maker through comparison with other works of secure authorship. See also Formalism.
contrapposto
Italian term meaning “set against”, used to describe the classical convention of representing human forms with opposing alternations of tension and relaxation on either side of a central axis to give figures a sense of the potential for movement.
convention
A traditional way of representing forms
corbel; corbeling
An early roofing and arching technique in which each course of stone projects slightly beyond the previous layer (a corbel) until the uppermost corbels meet; see also under arch. Also: brackets that project from a wall.
cornice
The uppermost section of a Classical entablature. More generally, a horizontally projecting element found at the top of a building wall or pedestal. A raking cornice is formed by the junction of two slanted cornices, most often found on pediments.
course
A horizontal layer of stone used in building.
crenellation, crenellated
Alternating high and low sections of a wall, giving a notched appearance and creating permanent defensive shields on top of fortified buildings.
crocket
A stylized leaf used as decoration along the outer angle of spires, pinnacles, gables, and around capitals in Gothic architecture.
cruciform
Of anything that is cross-shaped, as in the cruciform plan of a church.
cubiculum (pl. cubicula)
A small private room for burials in a catacomb
cuneiform
An early form of writing with wedge-shaped marks impressed into wet clay with a stylus, primarily used by ancient Mesopotamians
curtain wall
A wall in a building that does not support any of the weight of the structure.
cyclopean
A method of construction using huge blocks of rough-hewn stone. Any large-scale, monumental building project that impresses by sheer size. Named after the Cyclopes (sing. Cyclops), one-eyed giants of legendary strength in Greek myths.
cylinder seal
A small cylindrical stone decorated with incised patterns. When rolled across soft clay or wax, the resulting raised pattern or design served in Mesopotamian and Indus Valley cultures as an identifying signature.
dado (pl. dadoes)
The lower part of a wall, differentiate in some way (by a molding or different coloring or paneling) from the upper section.
daguerrotype
An early photographic process that makes a positive print on a light-sensitized copperplate; invented and marketed in 1839 by Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre.
dendrochronology
The dating of wood based on the patterns of the tree’s growth rings.
desert varnish
A naturally occurring coating that turns rock faces into dark surfaces. Artists would draw images by scraping through the dark surface and revealing the color of the underlying rock. Extensively used in southwest North America.
diptych
Two panels of equal size (usually decorated with paintings or reliefs) hinged together.
dogu
Small human figurines made in Japan during the Jomon period. Shaped from clay, the figures have exaggerated expressions and are in contorted poses. They were probably used in religious rituals.
dolmen
A prehistoric structure made up of two or more large upright stones supporting a large, flat, horizontal slab or slabs.
dome
A rounded vault, usually over a circular space. Consists of curved masonry and can vary in shape from hemispherical to bulbous to ovoidal. May use a supporting vertical wall (drum), from which the vault springs, and may be crowned by an open space (oculus) and/or an exterior lantern. When a dome is built over a square space, an intermediate element is required to make the transition to a circular drum. There are two systems. A dome on pendentives incorporates arched, sloping intermediate sections of wall that carry the weight and thrust of the dome to heavily buttressed supporting piers. A dome on squinches uses an arch built into the wall (squinch) in the upper corners of the space to carry the weight of the dome across the corners of the square space below. A halfdome or conch may cover a semicircular space.
domino construction
System of building construction introduced by the architect Le Corbusier in which reinforced concrete floor slabs are floated on six free-standing posts placed as if at the positions of the six dots on a domino playing piece.
dressed stone
Another term for ashlar
drillwork
The technique of using a drill for the creation of certain effects in sculpture.
drum
The circular wall that supports a dome. Also: a segment of the circular shaft of a column.
drypoint
An intaglio printmaking process by which a metal (usually copper) plate is directly inscribed with a pointed instrument (stylus). The resulting design of scratched lines is inked, wiped, and printed. Also: the print made by this process.
earthenware
A low-fired, opaque ceramic ware, employing humble clays that are naturally heat-resistant and remain porous after firing unless glazed. Earthenware occurs in a range of earth-toned colors, from white and tan to gray and black, with tan predominating.
earthwork
Usually very large-scale outdoor artwork that is produced by altering the natural environment.
echinus
A cushionlike circular element found below the abacus of a Doric capital. Also: a similarly shaped molding (usually with egg-and-dart motifs) underneath the volutes of an Ionic capital.
electronic spin resonance
Method that uses magnetic field and microwave irradiation to date material such as tooth enamel and its surrounding soil.
elevation
The arrangement, proportions, and details of any vertical side or face of a building. Also: an architectural drawing showing an exterior or interior wall of a building.
embroidery
Stitches applied in a decorative pattern on top of an already-woven fabric ground.
en plein air
French term (meaning “in the open air”) describing the Impressionist practice of painting outdoors so artists could have direct access to the fleeting effects of light and atmosphere while working.
enamel
Powdered, then molten, glass applied to a metal surface, and used by artists to create designs. After firing, the glass forms an opaque or transparent substance that fuses to the metal background. Also: an object created by the enameling technique. See also cloisonne
encaustic
A painting medium using pigments mixed with hot wax.
engaged
Of an architectural feature, usually a column, attached to a wall
engraving
An intaglio printmaking process of inscribing an image, design, or letters onto a metal or wood surface from which a print is made. An engraving is usually drawn with a sharp implement (burin) directly onto the surface of the plate. Also: the print made from this process.
entablature
In the Classical orders, the horizontal elements above the columns and capitals. The entablature consists of, from bottom to top, an architrave, a frieze, and a cornice.
entasis
A slight swelling of the shaft of a Greek column. The optical illusion of entasis makes the column appear from a distance to be straight.
esquisse
French for “sketch.” A quickly executed drawing or painting conveying the overall idea for a finished painting.
etching
An intaglio printmaking process in which a metal plate is coated with acid-resistant resin and then inscribed with a stylus in a design, revealing the plate below. The plate is then immersed in acid, and the exposed metal of the design is eaten away by the acid. The resin is removed, leaving the design etched permanently into the metal and the plate is ready to be inked, wiped, and printed.
Eucharist
The central rite of the Christian Church, from the Greek word for “thanksgiving”. Also known as the Mass or Holy Communion, it reenacts Christ’s sacrifice on the cross and commemorates the Last Supper. According to traditional Catholic Christian belief, consecrated bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ; in Protestant belief, bread and wine symbolize the body and blood.
exedra (pl. exedrae)
In architecture, a semicircular niche. On a small scale, often used as decoration, whereas larger exedrae can form interior spaces (such as an apse).
expressionism
Artistic styles in which aspects of works of art are exaggerated to evoke subjective emotions rather than to portray objective reality or elicit a rational response.
facade
The face or front wall of a building
faience
Type of ceramic covered with colorful, opaque glazes that form a smooth, impermeable surface. First developed in ancient Egypt.
fang ding
A square or rectangular bronze vessel with four legs. The fang ding was used for ritual offerings in ancient China during the Shang dynasty.
fete galante
A subject in painting depicting well-dressed people at leisure in a park or country setting. It is most often associated with eighteenth-century French Rococo painting.
filigree
Delicate, lacelike ornamental work
fillet
The flat ridge between the carved-out flutes of a column shaft
finial
A knoblike architectural decoration usually found at the top point of a spire, pinnacle, canopy, or gable. Also found on furniture. Also the ornamental top of a staff.
flutes
In architecture, evenly spaced, rounded parallel vertical grooves incised on shafts of columns or on columnar elements such as pilasters.
flying gallop
A non-naturalistic pose in which animals are depicted hovering above the ground with legs fully extended backward and forward to signify that they are running.
foreshortening
The illusion created on a flat surface by which figures and objects appear to recede or project sharply into space. Accomplished according to the rules of perspective.
formal analysis
An exploration of the visual character that artists bring to their works through the expressive use of elements such as line, form, color, and light, and through its overall structure or composition.
Formalism
An approach to the understanding, appreciation, and valuation of art based almost solely on considerations of form. The Formalist’s approach tends to regard an artwork as independent of its time and place of making.
forum
A Roman town center; site of temples and administrative buildings and used as a market or gathering area for the citizens.
fresco
A painting technique in which water-based pigments are applied to a plaster surface. If the plaster is painted when wet, the color is absorbed by the plaster, becoming a permanent part of the wall (buon fresco). Fresco secco is created by painting on dried plaster, and the color may eventually flake off. Murals made by both these techniques are called frescos.
frieze
The middle element of an entablature, between the architrave and the cornice. Usually decorated with sculpture, painting, or moldings. Also: any continuous flat band with relief sculpture or painted decoration.
frottage
A design produced by laying a piece of paper over a textured surface and rubbing with charcoal or other soft medium.
fusuma
Sliding doors covered with paper, used in traditional Japanese construction. Fusuma are often highly decorated with paintings and colored backgrounds.
gallery
A roofed passageway with one or both of its long sides open to the air. In church architecture, the story found above the aisles of a church or across the width at the end of the nave or transepts, usually open to and overlooking the area below. Also: a building or hall in which art is displayed and sold.
garbhagriha
From the Sanskrit word meaning “womb chamber”, a small room or shrine in a Hindu temple containing its principal holy image.
genre painting
A term used to loosely categorize paintings depicting scenes of everyday life, including (among others) domestic interiors, parties, inn scenes, and street scenes.
geoglyph
Earthen design on a colossal scale, often created in a landscape as if to be seen from an aerial viewpoint.
gesso
A primer made from glue, gypsum, and/or chalk, used as the ground of a wood panel or the priming layer of a canvas. Provides a smooth surface for painting.
gilding
The application of paper-thin gold lief or gold pigment to an object made from another medium (for example, a sculpture or painting). Usually used as a decorative finishing detail.
giornata (pl. giornate)
Adopted from the Italian term meaning “a day’s work”, a giornata is the section of a fresco plastered and painted in a single day.
glazing
In ceramics, an outermost layer of vitreous liquid (glaze) that, upon firing, renders the ware waterproof and forms a decorative surface. In painting, a technique used with oil media in which a transparent layer of paint (glaze) is laid over another, usually lighter, painted or glazed area. In architecture, the process of filling openings in a building with windows of clear or stained glass.
gold leaf
Paper-thin sheets of hammered gold that are used in gilding. In some case (such as Byzantine icons), also used as a ground for paintings.
gopura
The towering gateway to an Indian Hindu temple complex.
Grand Manner
An elevated style of painting popular in the eighteenth century in which the artist looked to the ancients and to the Renaissance for inspiration; for portraits as well as history painting, the artist would adopt the poses, compositions, and attitudes of Renaissance and antique models.
granulation
A technique of decoration in which metal granules, or tiny metal balls, are fused onto a metal surface.
graphic arts
A term referring to those arts that are drawn or printed and that utilize paper as the primary support.
grattage
A pattern created by scraping off layers from a canvas laid over a textured surface. Compare frottage.
grid
A system of regularly spaced horizontally and vertically crossed lines that gives regularity to an architectural plan or in the composition of a work of art. Also: in painting, a grid is used to allow designs to be enlarged or transferred easily.
grisaille
A style of monochromatic painting in shades of gray. Also: a painting made in this style.
grozing
Chipping away at the edges of a piece of glass to achieve the precise shape needed for inclusion in the composition of a stained-glass window.
guild
An association of artists or craftspeople. Medieval and Renaissance guilds had great economic power, as they controlled the marketing of their members’ products and provided economic protection, political solidarity, and training in the craft to its members. The painters’ guild was usually dedicated to St. Luke, their patron saint.
hall church
A church with nave and aisles of the same height, giving the impression of a large, open hall.
halo
A circle of light that surrounds and frames the heads of emperors and holy figures to signify their power and/or sanctity. Also known as a nimbus.
handscroll
A long, narrow, horizontal painting or text (or combination thereof) common in Chinese and Japanese art and of a size intended for individual use. A handscroll is stored wrapped tightly around a wooden pin and is unrolled for viewing or reading.
hanging scroll
In Chinese and Japanese art, a vertical painting or text mounted within sections of silk. At the top is a semicircular rod; at the bottom is a round dowel. Hanging scrolls are kept rolled and tied except for special occasions, when they are hung for display, contemplation, or commemoration.
haniwa
Pottery forms, including cylinders, buildings, and human figures, that were placed on top of Japanese tombs or burial mounds during the Kofun period (300-552 CE)
Happening
Term coined by Allan Kaprow in the 1960s to describe artworks incorporating elements of performance, theater, and visual images. Organized without a specific narrative or intent and with audience participation, the vent proceeded according to chance and individual improvisation.
hemicycle
A semicircular interior space or structure.
henge
A circular area enclosed by stones or wood posts set up by Neolithic peoples. It is usually bounded by a ditch and raised embankment.
hierarchic scale
The use of differences in size to indicate relative importance. For example, with human figures, the larger the figure, the greater her or his importance.
hieratic
Highly stylized, severe, and detached, often in relation to a strict religious tradition.
hieroglyph
Picture writing; words and ideas rendered in the form of pictorial symbols
historicism
The strong consciousness of and attention to the institutions, themes, styles, and forms of the past, made accessible by historical research, textual study, and archaeology.
history paintings
Paintings based on historical, mythological, or biblical narratives. Once considered the noblest form of art, history paintings generally covey a high moral or intellectual idea and are often painted in a grand pictorial style.
horizon line
A horizontal “line” formed by the implied meeting point of earth and sky. In linear perspective, the vanishing point or points are located on this “line”.
hue
Pure color. The saturation or intensity of the hue depends on the purity of the color. Its value depends on its lightness or darkness.
hydria
A large ancient Greek or Roman jar with three handles (horizontal ones at both sides and one vertical at the back), used for storing water.
hypostyle hall
A large interior room characterized by many closed spaced columns that support its roof.
icon
An image representing a sacred figure or event in the Byzantine (later the Orthodox) Church. Icons are venerated by the faithful, who believe their prayers are transmitted through them to God.
iconic image
A picture that expresses or embodies an intangible concept or idea.
iconoclasm
The banning and/or destruction of images, especially icons and religious art. Iconoclasm in eighth- and ninth-century Byzantium and sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Protestant territories arose from differing beliefs about the power, meaning, function, and purpose of imagery in religion.
iconography
Identifying and studying the subject matter and conventional symbols in works of art.
iconology
Interpreting works of art as embodiments of cultural situation by placing them within broad social, political, religious, and intellectual contexts.
iconophile
From the Greek for “lover of images”. In periods of iconoclasm, iconophiles advocate for the continued use of sacred images.
idealization
A process in art through which artists strive to make their forms and figures attain perfection, based on pervading cultural values and/or their own personal ideals.
illumination
A painting on paper or parchment used as an illustration and/or decoration in a manuscript or album. Usually richly colored, often supplemented by gold and other precious materials. The artists are referred to as illuminators. Also: the technique of decorating manuscripts with such paintings.
impasto
Thick applications of paint that give a painting a palpable surface texture.
impluvium
A pool under a roof opening that collected rainwater in the atrium of a Roman house.
impost block
A block of masonry imposed between the top of a pier or above the capital or column in order to provide extra support at the springing of an arch.
incising
A technique in which a design or inscription is cut into a hard surface with a sharp instrument. Such a surface is said to be incised.
ink painting
A monochromatic style of painting developed in China, using black ink with gray washes.
inlay
To set pieces of a material or materials into a surface to form a design. Also: material used in or decoration formed by this technique.
installation, installation art
Contemporary art created for a specific site, especially a gallery or outdoor area, that creates a complete and controlled environment
intaglio
A technique in which the design is carved out of the surface of an object, such as an engraved seal stone. In the graphic arts, intaglio includes engraving, etching, and drypoint–all processes in which ink transfers to paper from incised, ink-filled lines cut into a metal plate.
intarsia
Technique of inlay decoration using variously colored woods.
iwan
In Islamic architecture, a large, vaulted chamber with a monumental arched opening on one side.
jamb
In architecture, the vertical element found on both sides of an opening in a wall, and supporting an arch or lintel.
Japonisme
A style in French and American nineteenth-century art that was highly influenced by Japanese art, especially prints.
jasperware
A fine-grained, unglazed, white ceramic developed in the eighteenth century by Josiah Wedgewood, often with raised designs remaining white above a background surface colored by metallic oxides.
Jataka tales
In Buddhism, stories associated with the previous lives of Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha.
joggled voussoirs
Interlocking voussoirs in an arch or lintel, often of contrasting materials for colorful effect.
joined-block sculpture
Large-scale wooden sculpture constructed by a method developed in Japan. The entire work is made from smaller hollow blocks, each individually carved, and assembled when complete. The joined-block technique allowed production of larger sculpture, as the multiple joints alleviate the problems of drying and cracking found with sculpture carved from a single block.
kantharos
A type of ancient Greek goblet with two large handles and a wide mouth.
keep
The innermost and strongest structure or central tower of a medieval castle, sometimes used a living quarters, as well as for defense. Also called a donjon.
kente
A cloth made by the Asante peoples of Ghana. It is woven in long, narrow strips featuring complex, irregular, geometric patterns. The strips are then sewn together to make a large rectangular fabric, which is worn by wrapping it around the body under the arms with one end draped up over one shoulder.
key block
The master block in the production of a colored woodblock print, which requires different blocks for each color. The key block is a flat piece of wood upon which the outlines fr the entire design of the print were first drawn on its surface and then all but these outlines were carved away with a knife. These outlines serve as a guide for the accurate registration or alignment of the other blocks needed to add colors to specific parts of a print.
keystone
The topmost voussoir at the center of an arch, and the last block to be placed. The pressure of this block holds the arch together. Often of a larger size and/or decorated.
kiln
An oven designed to produce enough heat for the baking, or firing, of clay, for the melting of the glass used in enamel work, and for the fixing of vitreous paint on stained glass.
kiva
A subterranean, circular room used as a ceremonial center in some Native American cultures.
kondo
The main hall inside a Japanese Buddhist temple where the images of Buddha are housed.
korambo
A ceremonial or spirit house in Pacific cultures, reserved for the men of a village and used as a meeting place as well as to hide religious artifacts from the uninitiated.
kore (pl. kourai)
An Archaic Greek statue of a young woman.
koru
A design depicting a curling stalk with a bulb at the end that resembles a young tree fern often found in Maori art.
kouros (pl. kouroi)
An Archaic Greek statue of a young man or boy.
kowhaiwhai
Painted curvilinear patterns often found in Maori art.
krater
An ancient Greek vessel for mixing wine and water, with many subtypes that each have a distinctive shape. Calyx krater: a bell-shaped vessel with handles near the base that resembles flower calyx. Volute krater: a krater with handles shaped like scrolls.
Kufic
An ornamental, angular Arabic script
kylix
A shallow ancient Greek cup used for drinking, with a wide mouth and small handles near the rim.
lacquer
A type of hard, glossy surface varnish, originally developed for use on objects in East Asian cultures, made from the sap of the Asian sumac or from shellac, a resinous secretion from the lac insect. Lacquer can be layered and manipulated or combined with pigments and other materials for various decorative effects.
lakshana
The 32 marks of the historical Buddha. The lakshana include, among others, the Buddha’s golden body, his long arms, the wheel impressed on his palms and the soles of his feet, the urna between his eyes, and the ushnisha on his head.
lamassu
Supernatural guardian-protector of ancient Near Eastern palaces and throne rooms, often represented sculpturally as a combination of the bearded head of a man, powerful body of a lion or bull, wings of an eagle, and the horned headdress of a god, usually possessing five legs.
lancet
A tall, narrow window crowned by a sharply pointed arch, typically found in Gothic architecture.
lantern
A turretlike structure situated on a roof, vault, or dome, with windows that allow light into the space below.
lekythos (pl. lekythoi)
A slim ancient Greek oil vase with one handle and a narrow mouth.
linga shrine
A place of worship centered on an object or representation in the form of a phallus or column (the linga), which symbolizes the power of the Hindu god Shiva.
lintel
A horizontal element of material carried by two or more vertical supports to form an opening.
literati painting
A style of painting that reflects the taste of the educated class of East Asian intellectuals and scholars. Characteristics include an appreciation for the antique, small scale, and an intimate connection between maker and audience.
lithography
Process of making a print (lithograph) from a design drawn on a flat stone block with greasy crayon. Ink is applied to the wet stone and adheres only to the greasy areas of the design.
loggia
Italian term for a gallery. Often used as a corridor between buildings or around a courtyard, a loggia usually features an arcade or colonnade.
longitudinal-plan building
Any structure designed with a rectangular shape and a longitudinal axis. In a cross-shaped building, the main arm of the building would be longer than any arms that cross it. For example, a basilica.
lost-wax casting
A method of casting metal, such as bronze. A wax model is covered with clay and plaster, then fired, thus melting the model and leaving a hollow form. Molten metal is then poured into the hollow space and slowly cooled. When the hardened clay and plaster exterior shell is removed, a solid metal form remains to be smoothed and polished.
lunette
A semicircular wall area, framed by an arch over a door or window. Can be either plain or decorated.
lusterware
Pottery decorated with metallic glazes.
madrasa
An Islamic institution of higher learning, where teaching is focused on theology and law.
maenad
In ancient Greece, a female devotee of the wine god Dionysos who participated in orgiastic rituals. Often depicted with swirling drapery to indicate wild movement or dance. Also called a Bacchante after Bacchus, the Roman equivalent of Dionysos.
majolica
Pottery painted with a tin glaze that, when fired, gives a lustrous and colorful surface.
mandala
An image of the cosmos represented by an arrangement of circles or concentric geometric shapes containing diagrams or images. Used for meditation and contemplation by Buddhists.
mandapa
In a Hindu temple, an open hall dedicated to ritual worship.
mandorla
Light encircling, or emanating from, the entire figure of a sacred person.
manuscript
A hand-written book or document.
maqsura
An enclosure in a Muslim mosque, near the mihrab, designated for dignitaries.
martyrium (pl. martyria)
A church, chapel, or shrine built over the grave of a Christian martyr.
mastaba
A flat-topped, one-story structure with slanted walls built over an ancient Egyptian underground tomb.
matte
Of a smooth surface that is without shine or luster.
mausoleum
A monumental building used as a tomb. Named after the tomb of King Mausolos erected at Halikarnassos around 350 BCE
medallion
Any round ornament or decoration. Also: a large medal
medium (pl. media)
The material from which a work of art is made.
megalith (adj. megalithic)
A large stone used in some prehistoric architecture.
megaron
The main hall of a Mycenaean palace or grand house
memento mori
From Latin for “remember that you must die”. An object, such as a skull or extinguished candle, typically found in a vanitas image, symbolizing the transience of life.
menorah
A Jewish lampstand with seven or nine branches; the nine-branched menorah is used during the celebration of Hanukkah. Representations of the seven-branched menorah, once used in the Temple of Jerusalem, became a symbol of Judaism.
metope
The carved or painted rectangular panel between the triglyphs of a Doric frieze.
mihrab
A recess or niche that distinguishes the wall oriented toward Mecca (qibla) in a mosque.
millefiori
A glassmaking technique in which rods of differently colored glass are fused in a long bundle that is subsequently sliced to produce disks or beads with small scale, multicolor patterns. The term derives from the Italian for “a thousand flowers.”
minaret
A tower on or near a mosque from which Muslims are called to prayer five times a day.
minbar
A high platform or pulpit in a mosque.
miniature
Anything small. In painting, miniatures may be illustrations within albums or manuscripts or intimate portraits.
mirador
In Spanish and Islamic palace architecture, a very large window or room with windows, and sometimes balconies, providing views to interior courtyards or the exterior landscape.
mithuna
The amorous make and female couples in Buddhist sculpture, usually found at the entrance to a sacred building. The mithuna symbolizes the harmony and fertility of life.
moai
Statues found in Polynesia, carved from tufa, a yellowish brown volcanic stone, and depicting the human form. Nearly 1,000 of these statues have been found on the island of Rapa Nui but their significance has been a matter of speculation.
modeling
In painting, the process of creating the illusion of three-dimensionality on a two-dimensional surface by use of light and shade. In sculpture, the process of molding a three-dimensional form out of a malleable substance.
module
A segment or portion of a repeated design. Also: a basic building block.
molding
A shaped or sculpted strip with varying contours and patterns. Used as decoration on architecture, furniture, frames, and other objects.
mortise-and-tenon
A method of joining two elements. A projecting pin (tenon) on one element fits snugly into a hole designed for it (mortise) on the other.
mosaic
Image formed by arranging small colored stone or glass pieces (tesserae) and affixing them to a hard, stable surface.
mosque
A building used for communal Islamic worship
Mozarabic
Of an eclectic style practiced in Christian medieval Spain when much of the Iberian peninsula was ruled by Islamic dynasties.
mudra
A symbolic hand gesture in Buddhist art that denotes certain behaviors, actions, or feelings.
mullion
A slender straight or curving bar that divides a window into subsidiary sections to create tracery.
muqarna
In Islamic architecture, one of the nichelike components, often stacked in tiers to mark the transition between flat and rounded surfaces and often found on the vault of a dome.
naos
The principle room in a temple or church. In ancient architecture, the cella. In a Byzantine church, the nave and sanctuary.
narrative image
A picture that recounts an event drawn from a story, either factual (e.g., biographical) or fictional. In continuous narrative, multiple scenes from the same story appear within a single compositional frame.
narthex
The vestibule or entrance porch of a church
nave
The central space of a church, two or three stories high and usually flanked by aisles.
ndop
A Kikuba (Kuba) term meaning “statue.” It is sculpted of wood to commemorate a Kuba king (nyim) and the role he serves in Kuba society.
necropolis
A large cemetery or burial area; literally a “city of the dead”.
nemes headdress
The royal headdress of ancient Egypt.
niello
A metal technique in which a black sulfur alloy is rubbed into fine lines engraved into metal (usually gold or silver). When heated, the alloy becomes fused with the surrounding metal and provides contrasting detail.
oculus (pl. oculi)
In architecture, a circular opening. Usually found either as windows or at the apex of a dome. When at the top of a dome, an oculus is either open to the sky or covered by a decorative exterior lantern.
odalisque
Turkish word for “harm slave girl” or “concubine”.
oil paint
Pigments suspended in a medium of oil and used for painting. Oil paint has particular properties that allow for grater ease of working: among others, a slow drying time (which allows for corrections), and a great range of relative opaqueness of paint layers (which permits a high degree of detail and luminescence).
oinochoe
An ancient Greek jug used for wine.
olpe
Any ancient Greek vessel without a spout
orant
Of a standing figure represented praying with outstretched and upraised arms.
oratory
a small chapel
order
A system of proportions in Classical architecture that includes every aspect of the building’s plan, elevation, and decorative system.
Composite order
A combination of the Ionic and Corinthian orders. The capital combines acanthus leaves with volute scrolls.
Corinthian order
The most ornate of the orders, the Corinthian includes a base and a fluted column shaft with a capital elaborately decorated with acanthus leaf carvings. Its entablature consists of an architrave decorated with moldings, a frieze often containing relief sculpture, and a cornice with dentils.
Doric order
The column shaft of the Doric order can be fluted or smooth-surfaced and has no base. The Doric capital consists of an undecorated echinus and abacus. The Doric entablature has a plain architrave, a frieze with metopes and triglyphs, and a simple cornice.
Ionic order
The column of the Ionic order has a base, a fluted shaft, and a capital decorated with volutes. The Ionic entablature consists of an architrave of three panels and moldings< a frieze usually containing sculpted relief ornament< and a cornice with dentils
Tuscan order
A variation of Doric characterized by a smooth-surfaced column shaft with a base, a plain architrave, and an undecorated frieze.
Colossal or giant order
Any of the other orders built on a large scale, rising through two or more stories in height and often raised from the ground on pedestal.
Orientalism
A fascination with Middle Eastern cultures that inspired eclectic nineteenth-century European fantasies of exotic life that often formed the subject of paintings.
orthogonal
Any line running back into the represented space of a picture perpendicular to the imagined picture plane. In linear perspective, all orthogonals converge at a single vanishing point in the picture and are the basis for a grid that maps out the internal space of the image. An orthogonal plan is any plan for a building or city that is based exclusively on right angles, such as the grid plan of many major cities.
pagoda
An East Asian reliquary tower built with successively smaller, repeated stories. Each story is usually marked by an elaborate projecting roof.
painterly
A style of painting which emphasizes the techniques and surface effects of brushwork (also color, light, and shade).
palazzo
Italian term for palace, used for any large urban dwelling.
palace complex
A group of buildings used for living and governing by a ruler and his or her supporters, usually fortified.
palette
A hand-held support used by artists for arranging colors and mixing paint during the process of painting. Also: the choice of a range of colors used by an artist in a particular work, as typical of his or her style. In ancient Egypt, a flat stone used to grind and prepare makeup.
panel painting
Any painting executed on a wood support, usually planed to provide a smooth surface. A panel can consist of several boards joined together.
parchment
A writing surface made from treated skins of animals. Very fine parchment is known as vellum.
parterre
An ornamental, highly regimented flowerbed; especially as an element of the ornate gardens of a seventeenth-century palace or chateau.
passage grave
A prehistoric tomb under a cairn, reached by a long, narrow, slab-lined access passageway or passageways.
pastel
Dry pigment, chalk, and gum in stick or crayon form. Also: a work of art made with pastels.
pedestal
A platform or base supporting a sculpture or monument. Also: the block found below the base of a Classical column (or colonnade), serving to raise the entire element off the ground.
pediment
A triangular gable fund over major architectural elements such as Classical Greek porticos, windows, or doors. Formed by an entablature and the ends of as sloping roof or a raking cornice. A similar architectural element is often used decoratively above a door or window, sometimes with a curved upper molding. A broken pediment is a variation on the traditional pediment, with an open space at the center of the topmost angle and/or the horizontal cornice.
pendant (also pendent)
One of a pair of artworks meant to be seen in relation to each other as a set.
pendentive
The concave triangular section of a vault that forms the transition between a square or polygonal space and the circular base of a dome.
performance art
Works of art that are performed live by the artist and sometimes involve audience participation.
peristyle
In Greek architecture, a surrounding colonnade. A peristyle building is surrounded on the exterior by a colonnade. Also: a peristyle court is an open colonnaded courtyard, often having a pool and garden.
perspective
A system for representing three-dimensional space on two-dimensional surface.
Atmospheric or aerial perspective
A method of rendering the effect of spatial distance by subtle variations in color and clarity of representation.
Intuitive perspective
A method of giving the impression of recession by visual instinct, not by the use of an overall system or program.
Oblique perspective
An intuitive spatial system in which a building or room is placed with one corner in the picture plane, and the other parts of the structure recede to an imaginary vanishing point on its other side. Oblique perspective is not a comprehensive, mathematical system.
One-point and multiple-point perspective (also called linear, scientific, or mathematical perspective)
A method of creating the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface by delineating a horizon line and multiple orthogonal lines. These recede to meet at one or more points on the horizon (vanishing point), giving the appearance of spatial depth. Called scientific or mathematical perspective because its use requires some knowledge of geometry and mathematics, as well as optics.
Reverse perspective
A Byzantine perspective theory in which the orthogonals or rays of sight do not converge on a vanishing point in the picture, but are thought to originate in the viewer’s eye in front of the picture. Thus, in reverse perspective the image is constructed with orthogonals that diverge, giving a slightly tipped aspect to objects.
photomontage
A photographic work created from many smaller photographs arranged (and often overlapping) in a composition that is then rephotographed.
pictograph
A highly stylized depiction serving as a symbol for a person or object. Also: a type of writing utilizing such symbols.
picture plane
The theoretical plane corresponding with the actual surface of a painting, separating the spatial world evoked in the painting from the spatial world occupied by the viewer.
picturesque
Of the taste for the familiar, the pleasant, and the agreeable, popular in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe. Originally used to describe the “picturelike” qualities of some landscape scenes. When contrasted with the sublime, the picturesque stood for the interesting but ordinary domestic landscape.
piece-mold casting
A casting technique in which the mold consists of several sections that are connected during the pouring of molten metal, usually bronze. After the cast form has hardened, the pieces of the mold are disassembled, leaving the completed object.
pier
A masonry support made up of many stones, or rubble and concrete (in contrast to a column shaft which is formed from a single stone or a series of drums), often square or rectangular in plan, and capable of carrying very heavy architectural loads.
pieta
A devotional subject in Christian religious art. After the Crucifixion the body of Jesus was laid across the lap of his grieving mother, Mary. When other mourners are present, the subject is called the Lamentation.
pietra serena
A gray Tuscan sandstone used in Florentine architecture.
pilaster
An engaged columnlike element that is rectangular in format and used for decoration in architecture.
pilgrimage church
A church that attracts visitors wishing to venerate relics as well as attend religious services.
pinnacle
In Gothic architecture, a steep pyramid decorating the top of another element such as a buttress. Also: the highest point.
plinth
The slablike base or pedestal of a column, statue, wall, building, or piece of furniture.
podium
A raised platform that acts as the foundation for a building, or as a platform for a speaker.
poesia (pl. poesie)
Italian Renaissance paintings based on Classical themes, often with erotic overtones, notably in the mid-sixteenth-century works of the Venetian painter, Titian.
polychromy
Multicolored decoration applied o any part of a building, sculpture, or piece of furniture. This can be accomplished with paint or by the use of multicolored materials.
polyptych
An altarpiece constructed from multiple panels, sometimes with hinges to allow for movable wings.
porcelain
A type of extremely hard and fine white ceramic first made by by Chinese potters in the eight century CE. Made from a mixture of kaolin and petuntse, porcelain is fired at a very high temperature, and the final product has a translucent surface.
porch
The covered entrance on the exterior of a buildings. With a row of columns or colonnade, also called a portico.
portal
A grand entrance, door, or gate, usually to an important public building, often decorated with sculpture.
portico
In architecture, a projecting roof or porch supported by columns, often marking an entrance. See also porch.
post-and-lintel
An architectural system of construction with two or more vertical elements (posts) supporting a horizontal element (lintel).
potassium-argon dating
Archaeological method of radiometric dating that measures the decay of a radioactive potassium isotope into a stable isotope of argon, an inert gas.
potsherd
A broken piece of ceramic ware.
poupou
In Pacific cultures, a house panel, often carved with designs.
Prairie Style
Style developed by a group of Midwestern architects who worked together using the aesthetic of the prairie and indigenous prairie plants for landscape design to create mostly domestic homes and small public buildings.
predella
The base of an altarpiece, often decorated with small scenes that are related in subject to that of the main panel or panels.
primitivism
The borrowing of subjects or forms, usually from non-European or prehistoric sources, by Western artists in an attempt to infuse work with expressive qualities attributed to other cultures, especially colonized cultures.
pronaos
The enclosed vestibule of a Greek or Roman temple, found in front of the cella and marked by a row of columns at the entrance.
proscenium
The stage of an ancient Greek or Roman theater. In a modern theater, the area of the stage in front of the curtain. Also: the framing arch that separates a stage from the audience.
psalter
In Jewish and Christian scripture, a book of the Psalms (songs) attributed to King David.
psykter
An ancient Greek vessel with an extended base to allow it to float in a larger krater; used to chill wine.
putto (pl. putti)
A plump, naked little boy, often winged. In Classical art, called a cupid; in Christian art, a cherub.
pylon
A massive gateway formed by a pair of tapering walls of oblong shape. Erected by ancient Egyptians to mark the entrance to a temple complex.
qibla
The mosque wall oriented toward Mecca; indicated by the mihrab.
quatrefoil
A four-lobed decorative pattern common in Gothic art and architecture.
quillwork
A Native American technique in which the quills of porcupines and bird feathers are dyed and attached to materials in patterns.
radiometric dating
Archaeological method of absolute dating by measuring the degree to which radioactive materials have degenerated over time. For dating organic (plant or animal) materials, one radiometric method measures a carbon isotope called radiocarbon, or carbon-14.
raigo
A painted image that depicts the Amida Buddha and other Buddhist deities welcoming the soul of a dying believer to paradise.
raku
A type of ceramic made by hand, coated with a thick, dark glaze, and fired at a low heat. The resulting vessels are irregularly shaped and glazed and are highly prized for use in the Japanese tea ceremony.
readymade
An object from popular or material culture presented without further manipulation as an artwork by the artist.
recuperation
A French term for the West African method of using found objects to make fine-art sculptures and installations.
red-figure
A technique of ancient Greek ceramic decoration characterized by red clay-colored figures on a black background. The figures are reserved against a painted ground and details are drawn, not engraved; compare black-figure.
register
A device used in systems or spatial definition. In painting, a register indicates the use of differing ground-lines to differentiate layers of space within an image. In relief sculpture, the placement of self-contained bands of reliefs in a vertical arrangement.
registration marks
In Japanese woodblock prints, two marks carved on the locks to indicate proper alignment of the paper during the printing process. In multicolor printing, which used a separate block for each color, those marks were essential for achieving the proper position or registration of the colors.
relative dating
Archaeological process of determining relative chronological relationships among excavated objects. Compare absolute dating.
relic
Venerated object or body part associated with a holy figure, such as a saint, and usually housed in a reliquary.
relief sculpture
A three-dimensional image or design whose flat background surface is carved away to a certain depth, setting off the figure. Called hog or low (bas-) relief depending upon the extent of projection of the mage from the background. Called sunken relief when the image is carved below the original surface of the background, which is not cut away.
reliquary
A container, often elaborate and made of precious materials, used as a repository for sacred relics.
repousse
A technique of pushing or hammering metal from the back to create a protruding image. Elaborate reliefs are created by pressing or hammering metal sheets against carved wooden forms.
rhyton
A vessel in the shape of a figure or animal, used for drinking or pouring liquids on special occasions.
ridgepole
A longitudinal timber at the apex of a roof that supports the upper ends of the rafters.
roof comb
In a Maya building, a masonry wall along the apex of a roof that is built above the level of the roof proper. Roof combs support the highly decorated false facades that rise above the height of the building at the front.
rose window
A round window, often filled with stained glass set into tracery patterns in the form of wheel spokes, found in the facades of the naves and transepts of large Gothic churches.
rosette
A round or oval ornament resembling a rose.
rotunda
Any building (or part thereof) constructed in a circular (or sometimes polygonal) shape, usually producing a larger space crowned by a dome.
roundel
Any ornamental element with a circular format, often placed as a decoration on the exterior of a building.
rune stone
In early medieval northern Europe, a stone used as a commemorative monument and carved or inscribed with runes, a writing system used by early Germanic peoples.
rustication
In architecture, the rough, irregular, and unfinished effect deliberately given to the exterior facing of a stone edifice. Rusticated stones are often large and used for decorative emphasis around doors or windows, or across the entire lower floors of a building.
sacra conversazione
Italian for “holy conversation.” Refers to a type of religious painting developed in fifteenth-century Florence in which a central image of the Virgin and Child is flanked by standing saints of comparable size who stand within the same spatial setting and often acknowledge each other’s presence.
salon
A large room for entertaining guests or a periodic social or intellectual gathering, often of prominent people, held in such a room. Also: a hall or gallery for exhibiting works of art.
sanctuary
A scared or holy enclosure used for worship. In ancient Greece and Rome, consisted of one or more temples and an altar. In Christian architecture, the space around the altar in a church called the chancel or presbytery.
sarcophagus (pl. sarcophagi)
A stone coffin. Often rectangular and decorated with relief sculpture.
scarab
In ancient Egypt, a stylized dung beetle associated with the sun and the god Amun.
scarification
Ornamental decoration applied to the surface of the body by cutting the skin for cultural and/or aesthetic reasons.
school of artists or painting
An art historical term describing a group of artists, usually working at the same time and sharing similar styles, influences, and ideals. The artists in a particular school may not necessarily be directly associated with one another, unlike those in a workshop or atelier.
scriptorium (pl. scriptoria)
A room in a monastery for writing or copying manuscripts.
scroll painting
A painting executed on a flexible support with rollers at each end. The rollers permit the horizontal scroll to be unrolled as it is studied or the vertical scroll to be hung for contemplation or decoration.
sculpture in the round
Three-dimensional sculpture that is carved from of any background or block. Compare relief sculpture.
serdab
In ancient Egyptian tombs, the small room in which the ka statue was placed.
sfumato
Italian term meaning “smoky,” soft, and mellow. In painting, the effect of haze in an image. Resembling the color of the atmosphere at dusk, sfumato gives a smoky effect.
sgraffito
Decoration made by incising or cutting away a surface layer of material to reveal a different color beneath.
shaft
The main vertical section of a column between the capital and the base, usually circular in cross-section.
shaft grave
A deep pit used for burial.
shikhara
In the architecture of northern India, a conical (or pyramidal) spire found atop a Hindu temple and often crowned with an amalaka.
shoin
A term used to describe the various features found in the most formal room of upper-class Japanese residential architecture.
shoji
A standing Japanese screen covered in translucent rice paper and used in interiors.
siapo
A type of tapa cloth found in Samoa and still used as an important gift for ceremonial occasions.
silkscreen printing
A technique of printing in which paint or ink is pressed through a stencil and specially prepared cloth to reproduce a design in multiple copies.
silverpoint
A drawing technique using a stylus with a sharp silver top to produce very fine, precise lines.
sinopia (pl. sinopie)
Italian word taken from Sinope, the ancient city in Asia Minor that was famous for its red-brick pigment. In fresco paintings, a full-sized preliminary sketch done in this color on the first rough coat of plaster or arriccio.
site-specific
Commissioned and/or designed for a particular location.
skeuomorph
A decorative object or design that mimics elements from a predecessor object that were integral to the function or structure of the predecessor.
slip
A mixture of clay and water applied to a ceramic object as a final decorative coat. Also: a solution that binds different parts of a vessel together, such as the handle and the main body.
spandrel
The area of wall adjoining the exterior curve of an arch between its springing and the keystone, or the area between two arches, as in an arcade.
spolia
Fragments of older architecture or sculpture reused in a secondary context. Latin for “hide stripped from an animal.”
springing
The point at which the curve of an arch or vault meets with and rises from its support.
squinch
An arch or lintel built across the upper corners of a square space, allowing a circular or polygonal dome to be securely set above the walls.
stained glass
Glass stained with color while molten, using metallic oxides. Stained glass is most often used in windows, for which small pieces of different colors are precisely cut and assembled into a design, held together by lead cames. Additional details may be added with vitreous paint.
stave church
A Scandinavian wooden structure with four huge timbers (staves) at its core.
stele (pl. stelai), also stela (pl. stelae)
A stone slab placed vertically and decorated with inscriptions or reliefs. Used as a grave marker or commemorative monument.
stereobate
In Classical architecture, the foundation upon which a temple stands.
still life (pl. still lifes)
A type of painting that has as its subject inanimate objects (such as food and dishes0 or fruit and flowers taken out of their natural contexts.
stoa
In Greek architecture, a long roofed walkway, usually having columns on one long side and a wall on the other.
stoneware
A high-fired, vitrified, but opaque ceramic ware that is fired in the range of 1,200 to 1,400 degrees Centigrade. At that temperature, particles of silica in the clay bodies fuse together so that the finished vessels are impervious to liquids, even without glaze. Stoneware pieces are glazed to enhance their aesthetic appeal and to aid in keeping them clean. Stoneware occurs in a range of earth-toned colors, from white and tan to gray and black, with light gray predominating. Chinese potters were the first in the world to produce stoneware, which they were able to make as early as the Shang dynasty.
stringcourse
A continuous horizontal band, such as a molding, decorating the face of a wall.
stucco
A mixture of lime, sand, and other ingredients made into a material that can easily be molded or modeled. When dry, it produces a durable surface used for covering walls or for architectural sculpture and decoration.
stupa
In Buddhist architecture, a bell-shaped or dome-like religious monument, made of piled earth, brick, or stone, and containing sacred relics.
style
A particular manner, form, or character of representation, construction, or expression that is typical of an individual artist or of a certain place or period.
stylobate
In Classical architecture, the stone foundation on which a temple colonnade stands.
stylus
An instrument with a pointed end (used for writing and printmaking), which makes a delicate line or scratch. Also: a special writing tool for cuneiform writing with one pointed end and one triangular.
sublime
Of a concept, thing, or state of greatness or vastness with high spiritual, moral, intellectual, or emotional value; or something awe-inspiring. The sublime was a goal to which many nineteenth-century artists aspired in their artworks.
symposium
An elite gathering of wealthy and powerful men in ancient Greece that focused principally on wine, music, poetry, conversation, games, and love-making.
syncretism
A process whereby artists assimilate and combine images and ideas from different cultural traditions, beliefs, and practices, giving them new meanings.
taotie
A mask with a dragon- or animal-like face common as a decorative motif in Chinese art.
tapa
A type of cloth used for various purposes in Pacific cultures, made from tree bark stripped and beaten, and often bearing subtle designs from the mallets used to work the bark.
tapestry
Multicolored decorative waving to be hung on a wall or placed on furniture. Pictorial or decorative motifs are woven directly into the supporting fabric, completely concealing it.
tatami
Mats of woven straw used in Japanese houses as a floor covering.
temenos
An enclosed sacred area reserved for worship in ancient Greece.
tempera
A painting medium made by blending egg yolks with water, pigments, and occasionally other materials, such as glue.
tenebrism
The use of strong chiaroscuro and artificially illuminated areas to create a dramatic contrast of light and dark in a painting.
terra cotta
A medium made from clay fired over a low heat and sometimes left unglazed. Also: the orange-brown color typical of this medium.
tessera (pl. tesserae)
A small piece of stone, glass, or other object that is pieced together with many others to create a mosaic.
thatch
Plant material such as reeds or straw tied over a framework of poles to make a roof, shelter, or small building.
thermo-luminescence dating
A method of radiometric dating that measures the irradiation of the crystal structure of material such as flint or pottery and the soil in which it is found, determined by how much a sample glows when it is heated.
tholos
A small, round building. Sometimes built underground, as, for example, with a Mycenaean tomb.
thrust
The outward pressure caused by the weight of a vault and supported by buttressing. See also under arch.
tondo (pl. tondi)
A painting or relief sculpture of circular shape.
torana
In Indian architecture, an ornamented gateway arch in a temple, usually leading to the stupa.
torc
A circular neck ring worn by Celtic warriors.
toron
In West African mosque architecture, one of the wooden beams that project from the walls. Torons are used as support for the scaffolding erected annually for the replastering of the building.
tracery
Stonework or woodwork forming a pattern in the open space of windows or applied to wall surfaces. In plate tracery, a series of openings are cut through the wall. In bar tracery, mullions divide the space into segments to form decorative patterns.
transept
The arm of a cruciform church perpendicular to the nave. The point where the nave and transept intersect is called the crossing. Beyond the crossing lies the sanctuary, whether apse, choir, or chevet.
trefoil
An ornamental design made up of three rounded lobes placed adjacent to one another.
triforium
The element of the interior elevation of a church found directly below the clerestory and consisting of a series of arched openings in front of a passageway within the thickness of the wall.
triglyph
Rectangular block between the metopes of a Doric frieze. Identified by the three carved vertical grooves, which approximate the appearance of the end of wooden beams.
triptych
An artwork made up of three panels. The panels may be hinged together in such a way that the side segments (wings) fold over the central area.
trompe l’oeil
A manner of representation in which artists faithfully describe the appearance of natural space and forms with the express intention of fooling the eye of the viewer, who may be convinced momentary that the subject actually exists as three-dimensional reality.
trumeau
A column, pier, or post found at the center of a large portal or doorway, supporting the lintel.
tugra
A calligraphic imperial monogram used in Ottoman courts.
tukutuku
Lattice panels created by women from the Maori culture and used in architecture.
twining
A basketry technique in which short rods are sewn together vertically. The panels are then joined together to form a container or other object.
tympanum
In medieval and later architecture, the area over a door enclosed by an arch and a lintel, often decorated with sculpture or mosaic.
ukiyo-e
A Japanese term for a type of popular art that was favored from the sixteenth century, particularly in the form of color woodblock prints. Ukiyo-e prints often depicted the world of the common people in Japan, such as courtesans and actors, as well as landscapes and myths.
undercutting
A technique in sculpture by which the material is cut back under the edges so that the remaining form projects strongly forward, casting deep shadows.
underglaze
Color or decoration applied to a ceramic piece before glazing.
upeti
In Pacific cultures, a carved wooden design tablet, used to create patterns in cloth by dragging the fabric across it.
uranium-thorium dating
Technique used to date prehistoric cave paintings by measuring the decay of uranium into thorium in the deposits of calcium carbonate that cover the surfaces of cave walls, to determine the minimum age of the paintings under the crust.
urna
In Buddhist art, the curl of hair on the forehead that is a characteristic mark of a buddha. The urna is a symbol of divine wisdom.
ushnisha
In Asian art, a round cranial bump or bun of hair symbolizing royalty, and, when worn by a buddha, enlightenment.
vanishing point
In a perspective system, the point on the horizon line at which orthogonals meet. A complex system can have multiple vanishing points.
vanitas
An image, especially popular in Europe during the seventeenth century, in which all the objects symbolize the transience of life. Vanitas paintings are usually of still lifes or genre subjects.
vault
An arched masonry structure that spans an interior space.
barrel or tunnel vault
En elongated or continuous semicircular vault, shaped like a half-cylinder.
corbeled vault
A vault made by projecting courses of stone; see also under corbel.
groin or cross vault
A vault created by the intersection of two barrel vaults of equal size, which creates four side compartments of identical size and shape.
Quadrant vault
A half-barrel vault
rib vault
A groin vault with ribs (extra masonry) demarcating the junctions. Ribs may function to reinforce the groins or may be purely decorative.
veduta (pl. vedute)
Italian for “vista” or “view.” Paintings, drawings, or prints, often of expansive city scenes or of harbors.
vellum
A fine animal skin prepared for writing and painting. See also parchment.
verism
Style in which artists concern themselves with describing the exterior likeness of an object or person, usually by rendering its visible details in a finely executed, meticulous manner.
vihara
From the Sanskit term meaning “for wanderers.” A vihara is, in general, a Buddhist monastery in India. It also signifies monks’ cells and gathering places in such a monastery.
volute
A spiral scroll, as seen on an Ionic capital.
voussoir
Wedge-shaped stone block used to build an arch. The topmost voussoir is called a keystone. See also joggled voussoirs.
warp
The vertical threads in a weaver’s loom. Warp threads make up a fixed framework that provides the structure for the entire piece of cloth, and are thus often thicker than weft threads.
wattle and daub
A wall construction method combining upright branches, woven with twigs (wattles) and plastered or filled with clay or mud (daub).
wax print fabric
Cotton fabric printed to look like Indonesian batik cloth. Originally made in the Netherlands and exported to African coastal nations during the fifteenth through twenty-first centuries, it is now manufactured around the world, including many African countries.
weft
The horizontal threads in a woven piece of cloth. Weft threads are woven at right angles to and through the warp threads to make up the bulk of the decorative pattern. In carpets, the weft is often completely covered or formed by the rows of trimmed knots that form the carpet’s soft surface.
votive figure
An image created as a devotional offering to a deity.
westwork
The monumental, west-facing entrance section of a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Romanesque church. The exterior consists of multiple stories between two towers; the interior includes an entrance vestibule, a chapel, and a series of galleries overlooking the nave.
white-ground
A type of ancient Greek pottery in which the background color of the object was painted with a slip that turns white in the firing process. Figures and details were added by painting on or incising into this slip. White-ground wares were popular in the Classical period as funerary objects.
woodblock print
A print made from one or more carved wooden blocks. In Japan, woodblock prints were made using multiple blocks carved in relief, usually with a block for each color in the finished print. See also woodcut.
woodcut
A type of print made by carving a design into a wooden block. The ink is applied to the block with a roller. As the in touches only the surface areas and lines remaining between the carved-away parts of the block, it is these areas that make the print when paper is pressed against the inked block, leaving the carved-away parts of the design to appear blank. Also: the process by which the woodcut is made.
yaksha/yakshi
The male (yaksha) and female (yakshi) nature spirits associated with fertility and abundance. Their sculpted images are often found on Buddhist and Hindu temples and other sacred places, particularly at the entrances.
yamato-e
A native style of Japanese painting developed during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, distinguished from Japanese painting styles that emulated Chinese traditions.
ziggurat
In ancient Mesopotamia, a tall stepped tower of earthen materials, often supporting a shrine.
conch
A halfdome
Grand Tour
Popular during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, an extended tour of cultural sites in France and Italy intended to finish the education of a young upper-class person primarily from Britain or North America.
