Global management strategies: Carbon Cycle Flashcards
COVERING: CCS, Agricultural Practices, Wetlands, International Agreements and Schemes
How does Carbon capture and storage work? (CCS)
- CO2 is separated from power station emissions.
- It is compressed and transported by pipelines to storage areas.
- It is injected into porous rocks deep underground to be stored permanently.
- It is also possible to pump CO2 into ‘mature’ oilfields to enhance oil recovery (extracting crude oil from an oil field which would not be possible otherwise) which is otherwise uneconomic to extract.
Where is CCS targeted at?
Power plants and industries.
What CCS scheme in the UK is planned?
Drax Project in Yorkshire Coast near Easingnton Gas Terminal.
Strengths of CCS?
- Suitable for industries which cannot decarbonise easily such as iron and steel industry which takes up nearly 10% of CO2 emission in the world.
- Makes use of natural gas reservoirs e.g those already geologically stable.
- ORCA –> Successful CCS plant in Iceland next to a geothermal power plant. It is the world’s first large-scale direct air CCS plant, with electricity required to run supplied by the Hellisheidi Geothermal power plant (renewable).
–> Annual capture is of 4000 tonnes of CO2, equivalent to about 2000 car emissions annually.
Weaknesses of CCS?
- Large capital costs: Drax project is estimated to cost at least £1bn.
- Mostly pilot/ small-scale schemes so far. Even Orca only removes emissions worth 2000 cars.
- 20% of power plant’s output is needed to separate CO2 and compress the gas.
- Requires specific geological conditions. –> Porous rocks overlain by impermeable strata to overlain the gas securely.
Outline 3 agricultural practices (related to crop and land management) that help to protect the carbon cycle?
- Zero Tillage (Growing crops without ploughing the soil) –> PROTECTS as it conserves the soil’s organic content. It helps to reduce oxidation and risk of erosion by water and wind.
- Polyculture (Growing annual crops interspersed with trees. Trees will provide year-round ground coverage). –> PROTECTS as trees help to bind the soil together and prevent soil erosion.
- Introducing new strains of rice that grow in drier conditions. –> When rice is waterlogged, it produces methane due to anaerobic decomposition.
Outline 2 agricultural practices (relating to livestock and manure) that help to protect the carbon cycle?
- Improving quality of animal feed to reduce enteric fermentation (process that generates methane). –> Done by mixing inhibitors with livestock feed.
- Manure management: Storing manure in anaerobic containers and capturing methane as a source of biogas (renewable energy).
Outline 3 agricultural practices that HARM the carbon cycle?
- Excessive cultivation by ploughing the soil intensively –> Makes more vulnerable to wind erosion.
- Intensive cattle ranching/ flooded paddy rice fields –> Increases methane released.
- Ploughing that creates furrows downslope acting as drainage channels. –> Increases rapid overland flow.
What are wetlands? What wetland is the best carbon store?
Land areas saturated or flooded with water permanently or seasonally.
Peatland is the best carbon store. However, if the wetland is drained, peat is released.
Where are the largest concentrations of peatlands found?
Canada, Alaska, N.Europe, Western Siberia, SE Asia and parts of the Amazon.
What is peat?
Peat is formed as a result of incomplete decomposition of the remains of plants growing in waterlogged conditions. This can happen in standing water or areas of high precipitation.
Partially decomposed plant remains accumulate, compact, forming peat.
Forms slowly at 1mm/year.
How do wetlands sequester carbon?
- Carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere through plant photosynthesis.
- Because wetland soils are anoxic (oxygen-poor), decomposition is slowed down, leading to accumulation of organic matter in the soil. Anaerobic conditions suppress some decomposition but also create methane.
- As more peat is formed, the acidity slows decomposition further, increasing carbon sequestation.
- When dry, CO2 is produced as a weak though persistent greenhouse gas. When wet, CH4 is a strong but short-lived greenhouse gas. On balance, keeping peatlands wet reduced long-term warming effects of continued CO2 emissions.
- Wetland soils can also store carbon that washes in from upload areas, acting as sediment traps therefore. Any soil eroded from uplands, leave litter from upstream, that can be trapped by vegetation in wetlands.
What is RAMSAR?
A convention signed on wetlands (1972) by 172 signatories.
It aims to conserve and wisely use all wetlands through national, local and international cooperation.
What do signatories of RAMSAR commit to?
- Work towards wise use of wetlands.
- Designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International Importance, ensuring their effective management. There are over 2400 Ramsar sites, covering an area larger than Mexico.
- Cooperate international on transboundary wetland.
What is the Montreux Record?
Aims to track any wetlands under threat of damage from technological development, pollution or other human interference.
Key strengths of Wetlands and Ramsar?
- Wetlands, especially peatbogs are major carbon stores. –> Though they cover only 3% of the planet, they store around 30% of all land-based carbon.
–> Also coastland wetlands sequester and store carbon up to 55 times faster than tropical rainforests. - Crucial to protect due to slow formation –> Only 1mm of peat formed a year.
- Over 170 signatories.
- SYNOPTIC LINK –> Vital to the water cycle in helping to prevent droughts and floods and regulating river discharge in wet or dry seasons.
–> Also only 2.5% of water on Earth is freshwater, with less than 1% being usable. 0.3% of such is found in wetlands such as rivers and lakes.
Key Weaknesses of Wetlands and Ramsar?
- There are over 2400 Ramsar sites but ONLY covers an area the size of Mexico.
- No fines are attached to wetlands on the Montreux Record. –> Lack of enforcement. Questions of impact beyond raising awareness.
- Distribution of wetlands especially peatbogs are very uneven and cover a limited spatial area globally. Therefore the magnitude is smaller than other actions such as treaties to reduce GHG emissions which affect all countries.
What are the Flow Country Peatlands?
It is a Ramsar site and one of the largest and most intact areas of blanket bog in the world.
Describe the development of the Flow Country peatlands?
- After the last glacial period, sediment from melting glaciers was left behind in upload areas in Scotland.
- Due to the high levels of precipitation in the Highlands, only plants adapted to waterlogged, acidic, nutrient-poor conditions survived such as cottongrass and Sphagnum moss.
- Sphagnum moss is not easily broken down by decomposition so remains accumulate eventually forming peat.
- Anaerobic conditions and increased acidity from sphagnum moss release hydrogen ions also preventing further decomposition.
- 1mm of peat is formed each year, eventually turning the upland area into a blanket bog with peat as deep as 10m over the last 10,000 years. Flow country’s blanket bogs store more than 3 times the amount of carbon in all British Woodlands.
What did government incentives in the 1970s and 80s do to the Flow Country wetlands?
Tax incentives led to a big increase in forest planting. This impacted the previously (for thousands of years) treeless areas of bogs, furrows deep into peat and fast-growing confiers.
What is the Flow Country peatlands protected as now?
It is now a ‘Special Protection Area and Special Area for Conservation.’ –> Habitat conditions managed and protected by SNCBs who monitor the area.
What was the Flows to the Future Project?
From 2014-19 restoring large areas of blanket bog damaged by forestry planting.
- First, non-native confiers are felled as trees absorb water. This allows conditions to become waterlogged again.
- Felled trees are removed from the bog, allowing it to recover more quickly and reduces levels of nutrients going into the bog leaving a more even surface and allowing for peatland warders (type of bird) to recolonise.
- Tree roots are needed to be removed to keep area nutrient poor to prevent decomposition. Furthermore, sphagnum moss grows in waterlogged and nutrient poor conditions.
- Forestry drains and furrows are blocked using peat or plastic damns, allowing land to flood. –> Creates anaerobic conditions needed for bog to re-establish itself.
- Over time, the area recovers and water tables rise again.
What was the Kyoto Protocol (1997)?
It is an international agreement setting its targets to emission reduction targets –> 147 countries ratified.
What was the key principle of the Kyoto Protocol?
It follows the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” burdening Annex 1 countries (usually ACs) to a greater extent.
What was the first commitment period in the Kyoto Protocol? Who and why pulled out?
1st commitment period (2008-12): 37 industrialised nations and European Community listed in Annex 1. –> Aim to reduce GHG emissions to average of 5% below 1990 levels.
BUT USA pulled out in 2005 saying they exceeded their protocols and criticising the “common but differentiated responsibilities principle.”
What was the second commitment period in the Kyoto Protocol? Who pulled out?
Committed to reduce GHG emissions to at least 18% below 1990 levels.
Countries like Japan, Canada, Russia and New Zealand withdrew. (Canada’s emissions were 17% higher than 1990!)
After the second commitment period in the Kyoto Protocol what % of global emissions did the Annex 1 list cover now?
Only 14%!
What was the cap and trade scheme in the Kyoto Protocol?
This is an emission trading scheme.
“Caps” were allocations of a limitied number of emissions permits that allow a specific amount of GHG emissions over a set time period. Those who wish to increase their GHG must buy permits from others.
Market forces (supply and demand) should ensure that emission cuts happen at the lowest possible financial costs.
Annex 1 countries with spare units can sell them. –> Carbon is treated as a commodity (carbon market).
What are the three additional units that can replace emission permits in the Kyoto Protocol?
- Removal Unit
- Certified Emission Reduction Credits.
- Emission Reduction Units
Explain the Kyoto Protocol’s Removal Unit? (RMU)
The RMU can be achieved and obtained by a country through land-use changes such as reforestation. They can be traded in the ‘carbon market.’
Explain the Certified Emission Reduction (CER) Credits in the Kyoto Protocol?
Can be obtained if Annex 1 ocuntries implement emission-reducing projects in developing countries, which can be counted towards meeting Kyoto targets. –> E.g rural electrification projects using solar panels.
This Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) helps to stimulate sustainable development in LIDCs and EDCs through knowledge transfer from ACs.
Credits can be traded in the carbon market.
Explain the Emission Reduction Units (ERUs) in the Kyoto Protocol?
Scheme of Joint Implementation (JI) –> Aiming to encourage knowledge transfer.
Annex 1 countries can earn ERUs from an emission-reudction project in another country with emission reduction commitment.
Recipient country benefits from FDI and knowledge transfer.
Credits can be traded in the carbon market.
Strengths of the Kyoto Protocol?
- First time an internationally agreed legally binding target has been set with a near-global consensus and cooperation. –> Paves way for future international agreements.
- First time market-based mechanisms are used to minimise financial costs while reducing GHG emissions.
- RESPONSIBLITY on countries that are responsible for historical GHG emissions due to 150 years of industrial activities are most heavily burdened and binded.
- In contrast, no binding targets for EDCs and LIDCs allowing them to industrialise more easily, supporting economic development.
- CER credits promotes international cooperation (ACs helping LIDCs/ EDCs) and promotes transfer of technology and knowledge.
Weaknesses of the Kyoto Protocol?
- Annex 1 countries in 2nd commitment period only covers 14% of global emissions.
- Countries such as US, Canada, Russia and Japan have withdrawn.
- From 2005-12, global emissions have risen by 50% due to countries not covered by the original deal.
- Developing countries not covered by the protocol tend to rely on more polluting fuels such as coal. –> Burning coal releases small particles of black carbon into the atmosphere which absorb heat causing further warming.
- Carbon leakage (Due to costs relating to climate policies, businesses transfer production to other countries with laxer emission constraints). –> May increase total emissions. –> E.g from Europe to China.
What is the EU Emissions Trading scheme intially?
It is the biggest GHG emission trading scheme in the world since 2005. –> Initially covered 11,000 power stations and industrial plants in 30 countries, whose carbon emissions make up almost 50% of Europe’s total.
Companies can trade their allowances, providng an incentive for them to reduce their emissions.
The EU-wide emission cap decreases year to ensure total emissions fall.
What did the 2013 reforms do for the EU Emissions Trading scheme?
It expanded the emission cap to many more sectors such as aviation. The penalty for non-compliance has also been raised to 100 Euros/ tonne of CO2.
What are the exceptions for lower income GDP countries? Which countries have opted in?
For 10 EU members states with capita 60% below EU average in 2013, they are allowed to allocate emission allowances for free to the energy sector up to 2030.
This enables lower income countries to gradually develop low-emission technology. However, only Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria have opted in. –> Others not involved.
What impact did the Paris Agreement have on the EU Emissions Trading scheme?
European Commission set target to be climate neutral by 2050.
Also increase of emission cuts to 2.2% annual decline of EU cap.
Strengths of the EU Emissions Trading scheme?
- The biggest GHG emission trading scheme in the world.
- EU-wide cap decreases annually to meet the target set by the Paris Agreement.
- Takes into account the needs of lower-income member states by protecting their more-polluting energy sectors.
Weaknesses of the EU Emissions Trading scheme?
- Carbon leakage (To countries with laxer emission restrictions). –> Overall global increase of GHG emissions.
BUT EU ETS counteracts this by allocating more free emission allowances to energy intensive sectors at risk of leakage such as iron and steel, allowing them to remain competitive to foreign competition.
- Because of lack of reliable emission data, initially there was significant over-allocation of emission allowances. –> 2007 where price of allowances fell to 0 leading to 2008 reforms.
- Despite reforms, the 2008 recession reduced industrial demand for permits, leading to a huge surplus of carbon worth about a year’s emissions (1.5-2bn tonnes).
What is the Paris Agreement (2016)?
A legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 parties and aimed to limit global warming to below 2 degrees, preferably 1.5 degrees to pre-industrial levels.
How does the Paris Agreement work?
It works on a 5 year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action where countries submit their own plans for climate actions by 2020.
Outlines NDCs in the Paris Agreement?
- NDCs (Nationally determined contributions) to take actions to reduce GHG emissions + also plans to build resilience to impacts (NEW the latter)
Outline emission development strategies in the Paris Agreement?
Long-term, low GHG emission development strategies (NEW) -> Not mandatory but schemes such as UK’s Net Zero Strategy: build back greener pledge to reach net zero by 2050. Also submitted by 2020.
–> Allows for long-term planning and development priorities per country.
How can countries support each other in the Paris Agreement?
Countries can support each other (Similar to Kyoto):
a. Financial assistance to vulnerable countries for mitigation and adaptation.
b. Establish a technology framework to facilitate development and transfer of technology to improve resilience and reduce GHG emissions.
c. Capacity building: Developed countries asked to provide additional support as not all countries have sufficient capacities to deal with challenges brought.
–> EXAMPLE: Using GCF (Green Climate Fund) which has so far financed almost 300 projects in developing countries, donated from developed countries who have agreed to mobilise $100bn a year by 2020.
Outline how tracking of progress is used in the Paris Agreement?
NEW FEATURE.
Countries will report on action take and progress made. This information is fed into a global stocktake to assess collective progress made globally.
–> New recommendations for the next round of ambitious emission reduction goals every 5 years.
Strengths of the Paris Agreement?
- 5 year cycle of increasingly ambitious action is mandatory. It is more ambitious than the Kyoto protocol in its aim.
- Focuses on long-term targets with long-term emission development strategies.
- Support for most vulnerable countries to the impacts of climate change.
- Increased accountability via a global stocktake to track progress.
- Inclusion of resilience to look at impacts as well on individual countries.
Weaknesses of the Paris Agreement?
- Countries such as the USA have withdrawn (Trump has done so twice now!).
- Countries which did not ratify the agreement totalled for 2% of GHG emissions such as Iran and Yemen.
- No mechanism to force a country to set an NDC target or meet their targets. Only use of ‘name and shame.’
What is REDD+?
A UN collaborative programme on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries.
It partners with 20 tropical forest countries to manage forests sustainably, meeting Paris Agreement targets. –> Enables developing countries to reduce deforestation and encourages reforestation.
What is the key principle of REDD+?
Free and Prior Informed Consent (FPIC)
–> Informing local communities about positive and negative impacts and allowing them to vote whether to implement REDD and involving them in implementation.
What are the phases of REDD+?
- Technically assessing the baseline level of carbon sequestation and emission from the start of the forest prior to REDD+ activities.
- National forest monitoring systems are used to calculate how much carbon has been sequestered by protected forests through reforestation.
- UNFCCC COP (supreme decision making body) verifies progress made towards protecting forests.
- Result-based payments given to EDCs/ LIDCs with certified REDD+ activities, funded by ACs in public and private sources, TNCs and multinational funds.
Importance of reducing deforestation?
Deforestation accounts for 11% of global carbon emissions worldwide.
Example of a project that is part of REDD+ and its success?
Project: Peugeot ONF forest carbon sink.
–> Has helped to protect more than 7,000 ha of the Amazon.
–> 600,000 tonnes of carbon absorbed.
Success of REDD+?
- UN-REDD+ countries have submmited forest emission reductions equalling to taking 150 million cars off the road a year.
- 1 billion USD has been mobilised through UN-REDD+ projects.
- 8 countries so far have successfully received results-based payments such as Brazil.
- Could generate 10 million new jobs around the world due to targeted public investment in forestry.
- 50 developing countries have already submitted REDD+ forest reference levels to the UN, covering 70% of total forest areas in developing countries.
- Encourages participation of local and indigenous people.
Failures of REDD+?
- Review in 2016 concluded that forest dependent communities are not sufficiently involved in REDD+.
–> Highlighted how concerns of FPIC as tokenism rather than as a binding policy or normative framework, not recognising rights of indigenous communities.
–> Review found examples where safeguard not applied. Despite using FPIC in pilot project in Lam Dong, risks and costs associated not provided to local people. There was a lack of time for discussions and no grievance an review mechanisms for local people to address concerns. Simply asked if they wanted to protect their local forests where they answered ‘yes.’
BAD as without support and commitment from local communities could increase chance of non-compliance.
- Emergence of ‘carbon cowboys’ (landgrabbers) in Peru who tricked the indigenous forest-dependent communities to sign away land and carbon rights, taking away chance to benefit from REDD+ payments.
- In many countries such as Vietnam and Indonesia –> Unclear relationship between ownership of carbon rights and land tenure (often state owned) leading to those not being able to benefit from payments as they do not own the lands.
–> In Vietnam, households with unclear tenure are often the poorest in the community.
BAD as if indigenous livelihoods are not protected, could trigger further deforestation for subsistence farming.
