Global Development Flashcards
Define development
Development is the process by which societies change
What are some measures of development?
- Social
- Economic
-Composite (a combination of social and economic e.g. sustainable development)
Define economic development
Economic development involves a change from an economy based on the primary sector to an economy based on the secondary sector. It is a rise in living standards
what are some social measures of development?
- Education
- Health
- Democracy
- Gender equality
Define sustainable development
Sustainable development is development that sustains the natural environment, thereby ensuring that future generations can have the same level of development
Describe the Brundtland report
- The Brundtland report was published in 1987
- It introduced the concept of sustainable development and described how it could be achieved
- The WCED (or the Brundtland commission) was charged with proposing long term solutions for bringing about sustainable development and continuing it into the 21st century
What is the full meaning of WCED?
World commission on environment and development
What is the most common economic measure of development?
GDP
Define GDP
GDP (Gross domestic product) is the total value of all goods and services in a specific time period
Evaluate GDP
- It does not consider sustainability
- High GDP does not mean equality
- Some valuable work/labour is not measured
- High GDP does not mean the people of the country are healthy
What are some alternative measures of development?
- GDP per capita
- Human development index (HDI)
- Happy planet index
Define and evaluate GPD per capita
- GDP per capita is the GDP per person in the population
- It allows for differences in size populations between countries to be taken into account
- It is, however, an economic measure so the evaluation for GDP applies
Describe the HDI
- It is a composite measure of social and economic indicators, giving a statistical value to the level of development
- It is produced by the UNDP
- Each country is scored between 0 and 1 based on material standards of living, education and health
Evaluate the HDI
- There are doubts about the accuracy of some of the statistics used because of the difficulties in collecting data
- Figures are not always available for all countries
- Not all important aspects of development can be measured quantitatively
- However, it is useful in giving a broad impression of development
- It links economic and social wellbeing
Describe the happy planet index
- Created by the new economics foundation
- It gives a higher score to countries with smaller geological footprints
- It also includes experienced well being and life expectancy
What does Sen say about development?
He argues that development is about overcoming poverty because this allows people to develop their potential, it increases human freedom
Define Poverty
The united nations defines poverty as living on income of less than $2
Define absolute poverty
The UN defines absolute poverty as living on income of less than $1.25 a day
It can be defined as not having enough money to buy things needed for survival
State some measures of poverty
- Millennium development goals (MDGs)
- Sustainable development goals (SDGs)
Describe and evaluate the MDGs
- They were written by the UN
- 2000 to 2015
- One of the criteria was to halve the proportion of people living in extreme poverty
- Some targets were unrealistically ambitious for some countries
- Not very ambitious as it want to halve absolute poverty instead of eradicating it
- However, MDGs include developed countries as well as developing countries
- They have been useful in focusing the world’s states, IGOs and NGOs
- They were probably responsible for increases in aid, which doubled between 2000 and 2005
Describe the SDGs
- Created in 2015
- Some of the goals reflect how ideas have changed since 2000
- For example, it focuses on quality of education now that most children receive primary education
- There was a greater emphasis on environmental issues and sustainability
- Some of its goals were a response to criticisms of the MDGs
- For example, halving the number of people in absolute poverty still left about 1 billion in poverty so the new SDG was to eliminate poverty completely
Describe and evaluate the 3 world divisions
- First world: the industrialised capitalist world
- Second world: the industrialised communist world
- Third world: the rest of the world
- the second world no longer exists after the collapse of the soviet union(1980s)
- the term first world is used much less than third world
- Differences within third world countries became more distinct, they can’t be treated as a single group
What are the other world divisions?
- Global north and Global south
- Minority and Majority worlds
- Developed and underdeveloped countries
- More economically developed countries (MEDCs), Less economically developed countries (LEDCs), Least economically developed countries (LLEDCs)
Evaluate MEDCs, LEDCs and LLEDCs
- They demonstrate the hierarchical nature of the world
- They put countries that are different into the same category
Describe Collier’s bottom billion
- He coined the term “Bottom Billion” as a way of acknowledging that may parts of the ‘third world’ have achieved some degree of development
- He described those that have no developed as the remaining problem and called them “Africa plus”. It consists of 58 countries
- He believed that economic growth will eventually bring progress on social indicators in countries that have achieved some level of development, so the world needs to concentrate its efforts on the countries of the “bottom billion”
Describe the origins of Modernisation theory
- Arose in the early 1960s
- During the cold war
What is the main assumption and focus of modernisation theory?
- It assumes that development means capitalist development
- It believes third world countries can get out of poverty by adopting a western, capitalist way
- It is based on factors internal to third world countries, inhibiting their development
- Third world countries can achieve development through economic growth
Evaluate modernisation theory
- It is an ethnocentric approach
What is the process of development in modernisation theory?
- The process of development in modernisation theory means total change
- Poorer countries need to move from being traditional to being modern
What are evolutionary universals?
Social structures, institutions or cultural patterns that arise because they improve the adaptability of societies
Parsons argued that there were
‘evolutionary universals’ that each society would pass through in order to develop in the
modern way
What is the need for achievement
- The desire to be entrepreneurial and to make money
- McClelland argued that developing countries lack the need for achievement which is considered a modern value
What are Rostow’s 5 stages of economic growth
- Traditional societies based on farming
- Preconditions to take off (western values and practices begin to take hold)
- take off
- Drive to maturity (take off continues)
- Age of high mass consumption
How many years are there between take off and maturity?
60 years
What does Hoselitz say about development (modernisation theory)
- He applied the functionalist model of change to the third world
- Argued that developing countries need to modernise socially and culturally as well as economically
- He said obstacles to modernisation included social systems that impeded social mobility and getting people to accept new patterns of work
When was dependency theory developed?
1970s
Why was dependency theory developed?
As a response to modernisation theory
What do modernisation and dependency theory agree on?
- The importance of economic growth
- The importance of state-led industrialisation
What is the main assumption and focus of dependency theory?
- Believes that third world countries have been forced into a position of being dependent on the developed world
- The end of colonialism did not end exploitation, it only brought neo-colonialism
- It focuses on factors external to developing countries
- It is anti-capitalist
- It sees the situation of the world today as a direct result of the history of capitalism, world trade and colonialism
What did Frank say about development? (dependency theory)
He believed that development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin; the underdevelopment of the third of the third world is made possible by the development of the west
Define chain of dependency
The chain of dependency refers to the chain of relationships between the metropolis or core nations in the rich world and the satellite or periphery countries of the third world, development in the metropolis causes the underdevelopment of the satellite.
The metropolis buys off the elites of poorer countries by allowing them a small share of the profits this leaves the poor
countries helpless to help their own people. These bought off people exploit their own nation to prevent change, to keep a reserve pool of workers for the rich.
Define metropolis
The centre of economic activity that profits from an exploitative relationship with the satellite
Define satellite
The deformed and dependent economies of the underdeveloped countries
How do developed countries get out of dependency according to dependency theory?
The only way out of dependency is for an underdeveloped nation to escape from the capitalist system and ‘master-servant’ relationship, taking action itself rather than relying on outside help, though it might be able to work with others in the same situation.
Define underdevelopment
Underdevelopment refers to a nation that is not yet fully developed because it has been prevented from doing so by other, frequently richer, countries.
What is an undeveloped country?
one that has not yet become developed but may do so in the future. The opportunity is still there.
Define global inequality
Global inequality is the difference in money, status, rights and opportunities between different countries.
What is the main view of traditional Marxism?
- Sees capitalism as the best way to achieve economic growth, the problem is the inequalities that were produced at the same time
- It believes that wealth can later be distributed through a stage beyond fully developed capitalism, socialism
Who is the world systems theory associated wit?
Wallerstein
Describe the world systems theory
- Describes the world as consisting of a single unified capitalist system, the modern world system
- It comprises of:
- Core
- Semi-periphery
- Periphery
- It is a dynamic system; countries can move up and down the hierarchy
- The processes by which underdeveloped countries are exploited are the same as in dependency theory with emphasis on economic issues and in external rather than internal factors
Who created the theory impasse and when was it created?
Booth in the mid 1980s
Why was the theory impasse created?
- Development slowed down in the 1980s and non of the old theories (modernisation and dependency) could explain why
- Postmodernity began to take hold
- Globalisation started being discussed
- There was growing concern that development meant industrialisation, which would cause environmental damage and would not be sustainable
When was people centred development developed?
1980s
Why was PCD developed?
As a response to the way most development had been attempted until then
What is the main assumption of PCD?
- Development involving large scale projects run by the government or by large organisations did not seem to work
- Bottom-up approach
- Agrees with dependency theory
What does PCD argue development should be about?
- Sustainability
- Participation
- Justice
- Meeting other people’s basic needs
How does Sen’s theory on development apply to PCD?
He believes that development should be about giving people independence
When did post development start to affect the study of development?
1990s onwards
What are the assumptions of post development?
- The idea of development is ethnocentric
- Assumptions were made
- Western countries are seen as superior
- Ideas forced on the developing world
What is Escobar’s theory/saying?
He accepted that changes are needed but argued that there can be no universal model of development, and that people need to be fully involved in the changes
When did neoliberalism become the official approach to development?
1980s
What is the main assumption and focus of neoliberalism?
- Focuses on obstacles internal to developing countries
- Focuses on economic policies and institutions which are seen as holding back development because they limit the free market
- Argues that developing countries need to remove the obstacles to the free market and allow capitalism to generate development. They believe it will then generate wealth, initially for a minority who are successful, but eventually for all as the wealth trickles down
State some neoliberal policies
- Privatisation
- Cutting subsidies
- Getting rid of parastatal institutions
- Cutting state spending
- Cut taxes
- Free trade
Define parastatals
state run organisations through which the government regulates things like production, distribution and pricing of particular goods
Define globalisation
Several connected changes that have made the lives of people around the world more global
The globalisation of capitalism or the free market, accompanied by democratic freedoms and greater consumerism
Who supports globalisation?
- Neoliberals
- Modernisation theorists
Who does not support globalisation?
- Dependency theorists
- Radicals
What is alternative globalisation?
Ideas that have been globalised such as gender equality, human rights, fair trade
What are the 3 ways globalisation can be interpreted?
- Economic globalisation
- Political globalisation
- Cultural globalisation
Give evidence for economic globalisation
- Forbel et al believed that there is now a fully integrated global economy based on the new international division of labour
- Increasing global trade volumes
- The spread of the free market around the world (e.g. China and Vietnam)
- The growth of TNCs
Wat is the new international division of labour?
The new global economic order being produced by factory production moving from the developed world to some developing countries
Give evidence of political globalisation
- The spread of liberal democracy
- Big political questions now require global decision making
- National boundaries no longer restrict political activity (red cross)
- Nation states have become less important to TNCs and IGOs
Give evidence for cultural globalisation
- Spread of religion
- Spread of languages
- Spread of western values
- Shared entertainment
How many theoretical perspectives for globalisation are there?
McGrew believed that it is possible to distinguish between three theoretical accounts of globalisation
What is the Neoliberal view of globalisation?
- They see globalisation as the worldwide extension of capitalism or the free market - They see it as good because a global free market will lead to economic growth
- They believe the poor are missing out because they are not yet sufficiently integrated into the global economy
What is the Radical view of globalisation?
- They agree with neoliberals in seeing globalisation as essentially the global spread of capitalism, but they see it as negative
- Globalisation is seen as widening the gap between the rich and the poor
- Galtung believed that globalisation creates a global system based on structural violence
- They see cultural globalisation as cultural imperialism
- Globalisation is seen as leading, through a process of cultural homogenisation, to a single global culture based on American or western culture
- Sklair believes that the winners of globalisation are the transactional capitalist class
- Klein believes that the winners of globalisation are TNCs
- Cohen and Kennedy argue that globalisation has created both global winners and global losers who have missed out
Define structural violence
Even in an apparently peaceful society, a group, usually distinct because of, for example, race, gender, religion or caste, can be exploited by the systematic denial of their rights
Define cultural imperialism
The imposition of western, and especially American, cultural values on non-western cultures, and the consequent undermining of local cultures and cultural independence
Define cultural homogenisation
The removal of cultural differences, so that all cultures are increasingly similar
Define transactional capitalist class
A global power of elite or ruling class made up of the owners and controllers of transnational corporations and the globalised media
What is the transformationalist view of globalisation?
- The transformationalists such as Cohen and Kennedy see globalisation as a very important development but disagree with both neoliberalists and radicals on several grounds
- Globalisation may not be unstoppable
- Globalisation creates cultural hybridisation not cultural homogenisation
- People can reject some aspects of globalisation while embracing the more positive aspects
- There can be a reverse cultural flow, developing countries can influence the culture of the west
Define glocalization
The processes leading to the permanent intertwining of the global with the local and the way, for example, global products might be adapted to fit local cultural needs
Define a state
Sovereign political entity for specific territory and population
Weber defined a state as the entity with a monopoly over the legal use of violence
What is the neoliberal view of a state as an agency of development?
- Neoliberals favour the state being as small as possible; their view of globalisation is that states should have a fading role
- However, they accept that states have the responsibility to create and maintain a stable and secure social situation in which the free market can operate. Countries in which states cease to be able to do this, such as Somalia, are referred to as fragile states
What is the Marxist view of a state as an agency of development?
opposed to capitalism and favour development being led by the state provided it represents the people. In most countries however, the state is controlled by the ruling class, and it therefore acts against the interests of the majority of the population and in favour of the elites of the North
How can a state lead development?
setting development as a goal it actively pursues
Give examples of successful state led devlopment
- Japan
- The Asian Tigers
What was the common thing countries that developed in the past 50 years have in common according to Leftwich?
the presence of what he calls development states
Define development state
- A development state is one that sees its main purpose as development and leads the country’s development programme
Define predatory state
It preys upon its own people, through appropriation and corruption, preventing development
An example of this is Zaire, now the Democratic Republic of Congo
Define TNCs
Corporations that have globalised their operations; they produce and sell around the world, use global supply chains and employ people in many different countries
Give 2 reasons for the sudden rise in number and size of TNCs
- Globalisation
- The NIDL
Define EPZs
Areas in developing countries where the normal workplace regulations etc are relaxed to encourage TNCs to invest
What is the neoliberal view of TNCs as an agency of development?
- See TNCs as essential as they are able to introduce modern values and to kickstart an economy
- Any accompanying abuses are comparable to those that developed countries went through during industrialisation
What is the Dependency theory view of TNCs as an agency of development?
- Focus on the abuses of TNCs
- Its presence intensifies dependency
- prevents local industries from growing
- Ensures the country stays poor
- Its overall effect is to weaken workers and strengthen capitalism
Why are TNCs able to act in unethical ways?
- Global economic influence: the largest TNCs are more powerful than some developing countries
- Parent-subsidiary relationship: TNCs often operate through smaller, subsidiary companies
- Regional economic influence
- TNCs might break a law in their country of origin but there may not be a law in the developing country
- fines are tiny as proportions of profit
What are NGOs?
Organisations of concerned citizens who want to act together for humanitarian and philanthropic ends
Define INGOs
Non-profit groups which are independent of the state; they are largely funded by private contributions and work internationally on a range of global humanitarian, development and environmental issues
- some of the best known INGOs are associated with PCD
What are some advantages of NGOs/INGOs?
- they have played a vital role in emergencies
- Not driven by profit
- Respond quicker that WHO and states during crisis (Ebola virus in west Africa)
What are some disadvantages of NGOs/INGOs?
- The amount of aid an INGO can provide is small compared to aid from governments and multilateral aid by IGOs
- Some have grown into large organisations and have lost sight of their original idealism
- No decent wages for staff or involvement in decision making
- Edwards and Hulme studied a range of development NGOs and argued that they were losing touch with their roots and becoming closer to governments and other sources of funding than to the people they were trying to help
Define GCS
Civil society refers to the networks of groups and organisations that exist in any society, between individuals and families on the one hand and the state on the other
it includes businesses, political groups etc. Globalisation has meant that a world wide civil society is emerging, made up of all the groups and organisations whose interests and activities are no longer confined to one state
How does GCS view globalisation?
The growth of GCS and global social movement has led to the emergence of an anti globalisation movement
What is a limitation of GCS?
Because of the nature of all the organisations in GCS, it is unclear whether they all have different views or can work together
Define IGOs
Organisations that represent and coordinate the interests of nation states across various aspects of international relations
Give 5 examples of IGOs
- UN
- IMF
- World Bank
- EU
- WTO
How can IGOs be classified?
- Legal-political institutions
- Economic institutions
- Special remit organisations
What is the role of the IMF?
- Financial police for countries in debt
- Giving loans (SAPs) provided countries adopt an IMF economic programme
Evaluate SAPs
- Structural adjustment programmes
- they aim to establish economies but often impose strict conditions such as:
- Reducing government spending
- Liberalising markets
- Privatising state owned enterprises
What is the role of the world bank?
it raises money on the financial market at a much lower rate than many commercial banks, and then passes this on to its members. In this way developing countries can borrow loans are much lower interest rates than they could get
commercially
What is the role of the WTO
works to push neo-liberal policies onto trade. There are no votes in the WTO only decisions are made by consensus and decisions are hardly ever agreed
on
Define aid
The transfer of ressources from the developed world to the developing world
How can aid be classified?
From where it comes from
Where does aid come from primarily?
- Voluntary organisations and NGOs
- ODA given by the OECD
What is the ODA?
- Official Development Assistance
- It takes the form of grants and soft loans to promote economic development and the welfare of developing countries
How many countries are in the OECD?
25
Define bilateral aid
Involves only the donor and the recipient, usually government to government
Define multilateral aid
Donors contribute to a shared fund such as the UN or world bank who then give the aid to recipients
What is conditionality?
The setting of conditions on aid, so that it will be withheld if those conditions are not met
Give example of aid given by non OECD countries
- Cuba: sent sectors to Africa and other developing countries
- Venezuela: used some of its oil wealth to give aid to South American governments, and using this to push an alternative to the Washington consensus
- Bolivia: ended its agreement with the IMF; went with Venezuela
- Neumayer: Arab countries give generous and unconditional aid
What is the Washington consensus?
- economic policy ideas that create more market orientations
What is the neoliberal view on aid?
They see aid as teaching people to be dependent on handouts. Creating a culture of dependency
What is the case against aid?
- Bauer argued that aid could not be necessary for development, because northern countries did not receive aid when they were developing. Aid implies that the third world was incapable of achieving what the west had achieved
- Moyo argues that aid has been harmful to Africa because it has created dependency, fostered corruption and encouraged poor governance, and has not led to development so it should be phased out and replaced by encouragement of entrepreneurship and the market
- Hayter sees aid as a form of imperialism
- Samura described aid as a leaking bucket, more and more money is poured in but the bucket never fills
What is the case for aid?
- Modernisation theory believes aid helps developing countries develop as global north countries have much that can be shared with the south
- Sachs argues for a big push of large scale, focused and integrated aid to lift developing countries out of poverty
- Collier estimates that aid has added 1% point to the annual growth rate of the countries of the bottom billion, aid main not lead to development but it has stopped the situation from getting worse
What is the debt crisis?
Refers to the inability of indebted countries to pay interests on loans or to repay the original loan
Define debt boomerang
The term was created by George to argue that debt was also creating problems for the north and that action on debt was in the interest of the north as well as ethically desireable
What is HIPC
- Highly Indebted Poor Countries initiative
- A system by which heavily indebted countries can apply to have their debt written off provided the countries adopt IMF and world bank approved economic policies
