Germany Flashcards
What was Germany like before the war?
Germany had only become a united country in 1871. Before that it had been made up of several independent states. The most powerful of these states was Prussia. After wars against Austria and France, a new German empire was declared in 1871. Berlin, which had previously been the capital of the state of Prussia, now became the capital of the new empire.
What is the kaiser?
The King of Prussia became the Kaiser (emperor) of Germany. The Kaiser appointed (chose) a Chancellor, Germany’s chief minister. There was an elected parliament – the Reichstag –but it did not have much power, as the Chancellor made decisions, and reported only to the Kaiser. He could ignore the Reichstag if he wished.
What did Kaiser Wilhelm II want?
He had high ambitions for Germany:
He wanted powerful navy as it was a show of strength, and wanted to maintain a powerful army in the Prussian tradition
The Kaiser wanted a world policy (Weltpolitik), which would bring power across the world so that Germany could build an empire in Africa and elsewhere.
He wanted to emulate the British Empires success as Queen victoria’s grandson
What was The kaiser’s personality like?
Wilhelm’s personality and leadership
Historians agree that Wilhelm did not have the ability to rule Germany effectively or to command the army. He was intelligent and could be charming. However, he had a strong sense of self-importance.
He had frequent mood swings and a violent temper. Born with a disability, he was very aware of the weakness of his left hand, and his sense of imbalance. These may have been seen as weaknesses, especially in his role as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.
What was Germany like pre-WW1
This phase is divided into two parts by the disaster that was World War One.
Before the war, Germany was a constitutional monarchy with a Kaiser, Wilhelm II, and a parliament elected by adult males who held the right to vote. There were two main political themes in this period:
- Wilhelm was determined to turn his nation into a world power. Germany built an empire, became active in world affairs and took part in an arms race with other European nations that would eventually lead to war.
- However, at the same time industrialisation, and the social and economic problems it brought, led to the Social Democratic Party (SPD) becoming the largest party in the Reichstag. Before normal politics were suspended during the war, there was a growing demand for greater democracy in Germany and reforms that would improve the condition of Germany’s working class.
What was the structure of pre-WW1 Germany’s parliment?
Germany was unified as a single country in 1871 when 25 previously independent states joined together to create the new German Empire. The Empire’s constitution was a federal one.
The Emperor (Kaiser) – Head of the armed forces, controlled foreign policy, and appointed the Chancellor.
- The Chancellor – In charge of the government and had authority over the Bundesrat.
- The Bundesrat – Federal Council made up of 58 representatives from the 25 states. Introduced laws to the Bundestag and power to approve them.
- The Bundestag – Federal parliament made up of 397 deputies. Voted on laws introduced by the Bundesrat.
What were weaknesses of pre-WW1 Germany’s system?
Weaknesses of the system
- The Chancellor had to stay in the Kaiser’s good books, or he could be dismissed.
- The 25 individual states controlled income tax, which meant the central government, struggled to raise enough tax to cover its spending.
- Prussian influence was dominant although Wilhelm II’s first Chancellor, Caprivi (1890-1894) did give up the position of Prime Minister of Prussia that his predecessor had held.
- Industrialisation led to a large rise in Germany’s urban population. Poor working and living conditions were largely ignored by the unelected Chancellor and the Kaiser who held the greatest power in Germany.
What were the problems the Kaiser Faced pre 1914?
- Increased industrialisation meant more support for socialists and growth of militant Trade Unions and extremist groups.
- Trade Unions
- This made it difficult to get a majority in parliment
- The German government’s budget went into deficit as it spent more and more money on the army, the navy and its new colonies. The national debt grew to 490 billion marks by 1913.
How did Prussia influence the rest of Germany?
The new empire was built on a tradition of militarism – the belief that a country should have strong armed forces. The powerful state of Prussia had a mighty army with advanced weapons. As Prussia had become powerful by winning wars, the new empire of Germany expected to carry on showing its military strength. The army was at the centre of political and social affairs. Sometimes the strength of the army made it harder for democracy to develop.
- The army was led by Prussian officers, who reported directly to the Emperor (who was of course also the King of Prussia!)
- Prussia provided 17 out of 58 representatives in the Bundesrat. Only 14 votes were needed to veto (block) any laws passed by the Bundestag.
- Germany’s legal system, civil service and diplomatic corps were dominated by powerful Prussian noble landholders, known as the Junkers.
- The Junkers were wealthy conservative landowners from Prussia, in North-Eastern Germany. They controlled the Prussian Army, which had enormous influence over German foreign and domestic affairs. The Junkers were also strong supporters of the German ruling family, the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty. This state of affairs meant that the most influential force in Germany represented the interests of relatively few people. Catholics in the South and West, Jews and urban workers were treated with suspicion and had little say in how Germany was governed.
1.
What were the Navy laws?
Kaiser Wilhelm wanted a navy to match the British navy. In 1897, he appointed Admiral von Tirpitz as State Secretary of the Navy. In a series of Navy Laws passed between 1898 and 1912, Tirpitz began a large shipbuilding programme. Massive amounts of money was spent. In 1898, Germany had 12 battleships. The first law of 1898 allowed for the addition of 7 battleships to be built over 3 years.
The second Navy Law was passed in 1900 during the Boer War conflict in South Africa, when Germany expressed sympathy with the Boers, who were fighting the British. This law doubled the size of the German fleet (navy) to 38 battleships.
It was now clear that the intention was to show German strength in competition with Britain. The later Navy Laws increased the navy further. In 1906, Britain launched a new battleship called the Dreadnought. This was a state of the art warship. Germany began to improve its own ships in response. The German press supported the growth of the navy. A popular slogan, referring to the Dreadnoughts, was “We want eight and we won’t wait!” At this time, crises in Europe and in Morocco suggested that war might be approaching. German actions suggested they could be preparing for war. Germany became involved in an arms race with Britain.
At the same time, the Kaiser increased the size of the German army. Taxes were raised and money was borrowed to pay for this expansion.
What were the Domestic problems and successes of the Wetpolik and with Naval Expansion?
Domestic successes of Weltpolitik and naval expansion:
- it pleased the Kaiser, who was determined that Germany would become a world power
- it increased support for the Kaiser by appealing to German people’s sense of patriotism
- it won support from a majority of deputies in the Reichstag
Domestic problems caused by Weltpolitik and naval expansion:
- Majority did not last - The government’s majority in the Reichstag did not last and the government found it difficult to reform the Tariff Law in 1902.
- Debt - The German government’s budget went into deficit as it spent more and more money on the army, the navy and its new colonies. The national debt grew to 490 billion marks by 1913.
- The government found it very difficult to raise extra taxes to reduce the deficit and the debt.
How did Industrialisation effect Germany?
Industrialisation
The speed and spread of Industrialisation before the war was impressive:
- 1913 Germany was producing more iron and steel, and as much coal as Britain.
- Germany led Europe in the production of electrical and chemical goods. By 1914 Germany was producing 1/3 of the world’s electrical goods.
- The engineering firms of Bosch and Siemens were well known across the world. Britain was no longer the leading industrial power in Europe.
Increased industrialisation
Germany experienced rapid industrialisation in the second half of the 19th century. Agricultural production and heavy industries were replaced by modern industries such as manufacturing (electrical products - Siemens and AEG), chemicals and motor construction (Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler) as the most important sectors of the German economy. Unification in 1871 accelerated the process of industrialisation and by 1900 Germany had the largest industrial economy in Europe.
In what ways did Industrialisation effect Germany
Demographic changes
This huge expansion of industry led to significant demographic changes.
By 1910 60% of Germans lived in towns and cities.
As a result, more people joined trade unions and socialists.
The rise in popularity of socialism is one of the major events in Germany at this time - and was potentially a major problem for the government.
Why was there Social Reform and Growth of Socialism?
Social reform and the growth of socialism
Some people in Germany had become very rich because of the growth of industry. At the same time, many workers in the new factories, mines and workshops were unhappy about low wages and poor working conditions. More and more joined trade unions (workers’ groups) and organised strikes to try to improve conditions. They began to follow socialist ideas.
Socialism is the belief that wealth and power should be shared equally among the people. Many workers joined the new Social Democratic Party (SPD). This was formed in 1890. It was a Marxist party, which followed the communist ideology of Karl Marx. Communists wanted to go further than socialists by ensuring equal wages for everyone.
They planned to start a revolution to overthrow the existing authoritarian governments and put workers’ councils in their place. Communist ideas were gaining popularity across Europe, and were threatening for governments and for the ruling classes. Governments in Germany tried to reduce this threat and keep the workers happy by introducing social reforms such as old age pensions in 1889. However, in Germany the SPD continued to grow. In 1912, it gained one third of the seats in the Reichstag with over one-third of Germans voting for it.
Give examples of Social Reform
Social reform
Social insurance systems for health care, accidents, disability and old age had been introduced by Bismarck in the 1880s.
Despite its commitment to revolutionary change, the SPD worked to pass further social reforms that were designed to improve the working conditions of industrial workers, such as:
- 1891 - the Social Law banned Sunday working and the employment of children under 13.
- 1900 - the length of time accident insurance could be claimed for was increased.
- 1901 - industrial arbitration courts were introduced to settle disputes between workers and employers.
- 1903 - health insurance was extended and further restrictions were placed on child labour.
The Junkers and industrialists recognised the need to limit the influence of socialists and so supported the introduction of modest reforms in order to keep the workers happy and loyal to the German state.
What happened during the First World War on Germany?
When the war began in 1914 Germany was a powerful country. There was a strong feeling of pride in the German armed forces and industrial might. The people were supportive of the Kaiser and the German war aims: even the Social Democratic Party supported the government’s war plans at the start of the war. The German people expected victory in war. However, four years later by November 1918, Germany was close to collapse: its army was beaten, its navy destroyed, with the people living on bread and turnips. In fear for his safety, the Kaiser fled from Germany.
During the war, Germany struggled to cope with a two-front war (a war on two sides). By the end of 1914, it became clear that there would be no quick victories: trench warfare had set in. German armies fought against the Allies in the West against France, Britain and Belgium; and in the East against Russia. German submarines were active in trying to destroy Allied shipping throughout the war years, while its battleships were involved in only one battle, at Jutland in 1916, when they were forced back to their base, never to come out again. The war against Russia ended in 1918 with the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This gave Germany massive gains of land. However, in the West the German forces suffered a setback with the arrival of American troops in early 1918. They were unable to defeat an Allied offensive in spring 1918, and by the autumn as their allies (Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey) were also collapsing, Germany was forced to surrender.
What were ways in which people were effected by World War 1?
- Food, medicine & clothing shortages
- Plague
- War-weariness
- Kiel Mutiny
- TOV
How did War-Weariness and Economic Problems effect Germany?
At home, there were terrible shortages of food, medicines and clothing as the British blocked supply ships getting to Germany. The longer that the war dragged on, the lower the morale of the German people dropped.
In 1915, 500 German women gathered in front of the Reichstag to say that they wanted their men back from the trenches. In 1916, 10,000 workers gathered in Berlin to shout, “Down with war, down with the government!” The police moved in quickly to make arrests and restore order.
The winter of 1916 -1917, when some Germans were facing starvation, became known as the “turnip winter”.
In 1918 a deadly flu epidemic swept across Germany, killing more people than the war itself. At the same time, divisions between rich and poor had grown as some factory owners profited from war
What happened at Kiel?
The Kiel Mutiny
On 3 November at the main German naval base in Kiel, frustrated German sailors mutinied instead of following orders to attack the British Royal Navy. The sailors’ mutiny sparked rebellions all over Germany and in a matter of days led to the collapse of the German government which forced the ruling monarch, Kaiser Wilhelm II, to abdicate on 9 November. Friedrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) became Chancellor (the equivalent of Prime Minister in Britain) and took power over Germany.
What happened at the end of WW1?
Defeat and the End of the Monarchy
In October, the respected German general Ludendorff advised the Kaiser that as Germany was losing the war, they might get a fairer peace deal from the Allies if the country became more democratic. Unwillingly, the Kaiser therefore handed over some of his powers to the Reichstag and allowed the main political parties to form a new government. However, these changes came too late for the German people. There were more demonstrations against the war and against the Kaiser.
By 1917, both the people at home and the armed forces were demanding an end to the war. In autumn 1918, when it became clear that Germany had lost the war, the people took to the streets in protest against their government.
On 28th October 1918, sailors mutinied (armed protest), in Kiel, a port in northern Germany. - On November 9th the Kaiser abdicated and fled to Holland. In Berlin, the Social Democrats, SDP, (a socialist party) took control of the government. Their leader, FreidrichEbert, temporarily became Chancellor, the leader of Germany.
On November 11th, one of the first actions Ebert and his government took was to sign an armistice, ending the First World War. Most people were glad to see an end to the war, but many were angry and unable to believe that Germany had been beaten. The men who signed the armistice became known as the “November criminals”. Nationalists (people with a very strong love of their country) spread the “stab in the back” theory. This theory blamed the politicians for surrendering and betraying their people.
Why did the Belgians and the French invade the ruhr?
- Germany began to pay reparations in 1922, But they missed a payment and France and Belgium invaded
- In November 1922 Germany defaulted on its reparations payment as scheduled. The first reparations payment had taken all she could afford to pay. The French believed Germany could make the repayment but were choosing not to, however the German government argued they could not afford to pay.
- In response, France and Belgium sent troops into Germany’s main industrial area, the Ruhr Valley. Their aim was to confiscate industrial goods as reparations payments.
How did the French and Belgian invasion of the Ruhr cause Hyperinflation??
Hyperinflation
- Germany was already suffering from high levels of hyperinflation due to the effects of the war and growing government debt.
The extremely high cost of food after the 1923 devaluation in Germany
- The Ruhr Valley was Germany’s most productive industrial centre. Throughout the French and Belgian occupation production fell drastically as German workers were encouraged to passively resist (refuse to work) whilst the factories were under foreign occupation. This loss of productivity hurt the German economy hard as fewer goods were produced.
- The government had promised to pay the striking workers, despite not having any money. The government’s solution was to pay the workers by printing more paper currency. Money was being printed without any matching productive economic activity. This led to people losing trust in the German paper currency; the Deutsche mark, which meant its value decreased even more and prices for goods began to increase.
- Prices spiralled out of control, for example a loaf of bread, which cost 250 marks in January 1923, had risen to 200,000 million marks in November 1923. At the height of the crisis the cost of a cup of coffee could double whilst somebody waited in the queue!
- By Autumn 1923 it cost more to print a note than the note itself was actually worth.
- During the crisis workers were often paid twice per day because prices rose so fast their wages were virtually worthless by lunchtime.
Winners and Losers of Hyperinflation?
Hyperinflation winners:
- Borrowers, found they were able to pay back their loans easily with worthless money.
- People on wages were relatively safe, because they renegotiated their wages every day. However, even their wages eventually failed to keep up with prices.
- Farmers coped well, since their products remained in demand and they received more money for them as prices spiralled.
Hyperinflation losers:
- People on fixed incomes, like students, pensioners or the sick, found their incomes did not keep up with prices.
- People with savings and those who had lent money lost everything.
How did Germany feel about the TOV?
Most Germans were shocked by the harshness of the Treaty of Versailles and felt humiliated and angry with the way that their country had been treated. They called it a ‘diktat’ – a dictated peace.
Called the people who signed it ‘november criminals’
What is the weimar republic?
- Ebert ordered improvements to the Germans social conditions and a declaration that Germany would be governed as a democratic republic. This republic was created at a time of national defeat and disaster. It had many enemies on both the left wing and the right wing.
- In late January 1919, an election confirmed the SPD as the most popular party, so Ebert remained Chancellor. With the rest of the newly elected politicians, Ebert held a meeting in Weimar (as there was too much violence in Berlin), to discuss how Germany would be run. This was the beginning of the Weimar Republic.
What was the Spartacist rebellion?
When was it?
Why were they beaten?
In early January 1919, there was The Spartacist Revolt (a left wing attempt to take power). The Spartacists were the German Communist party. They believed that the new government was not doing enough for the workers. They wanted a workers’ state to look after the people, an end to private business, and the sharing out of all profits.
Chancellor Ebert had to use the army and the Frei Korps (or Free Corps - a group of ex-soldiers who hated communism) to fight them. After 3 days of street fighting, the Spartacists were beaten.
Their leaders, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxembourg_,_ were beaten to death. Their revolt failed because the Frei Korps were better trained and had better weapons, but it did make many Germans afraid of the Communist threat
What was the Weimar constiution?
What was the role of the president?
What was the voting system and reichstag like?
Weimar Constitution – a formal set of rules for how Germany would be governed.
The President, who was head of state, was elected every 7 years by all the German people. Normally, he had little power, but at a time of emergency, he could rule by decree (make laws without the agreement of Parliament). The Chancellor (Prime Minister) was appointed because he was leader of the main party in Parliament. He was the most powerful person in Germany. The Parliament had 2 houses. The one that made the laws was called the Reichstag.
The voting system was very democratic. Everyone over 20 could vote by secret ballot.
There was proportional representation. This system allowed small parties to get their representatives into Parliament. For example, if a political party won ten per cent of the votes, it was given ten per cent of the seats. This made it difficult for any party to gain a majority, making it harder to make decisions and leading to more arguments.Germany’s politicians drew up the Weimar Constitution – a formal set of rules for how Germany would be governed.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the weimar government?
Strengths
ATA
A genuine democracy - Elections for parliament and the president took place every four years and all Germans over 20 could vote.
The power of the Reichstag - The Reichstag appointed the government and made all laws. Almost all political power was exercised by politicians in the Reichstag. Before 1918 the Kaiser and the military took most of the important decisions.
A Bill of Rights - This guaranteed every German citizen freedom of speech and religion, and equality under the law.
Weaknesses
PA
Proportional representation - Each party got the same percentage of seats in parliament as the percentage of votes it received in an election. This meant there were lots of small parties in parliament making it difficult to pass laws and led to weak and often short-lived governments.
Article 48 - This gave the president the power to act without parliament’s approval in an emergency. However, it did not clearly define what an ‘emergency’ was, so the power was overused, which weakened Germans’ confidence in democracy.
Why did people revolt against the weimar government?
the new Republic got off to a troubled start for two reasons:
- Many Germans hated the government for signing the armistice in November 1918 - they called them the November criminals. The defeat in the war came as a huge surprise to the German people, which led to a theory that the brave German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians.
- Many Germans felt their country had received a very harsh deal in the Treaty of Versailles. They resented the government for agreeing to its conditions and signing it, even though they were forced to by the Allies.
The Weimar Republic’s unpopularity meant it faced violent uprisings from both sides of the political spectrum during 1919 and 1920.
What was the Kapp Putsch?
Why did it fail?
In March 1920, The Kapp Putsch was a right wing attempt to take power.
Dr. Kapp and the Frei Korps (an informal force of ex-soldiers) tried to take power in Berlin in order to return to pre-ww1 life. The government was so afraid that it actually left Berlin for Dresden, and called on all workers to join in a general strike.
The left wing unions organised a strike, which stopped all gas, transport, electricity and water supplies and took over several tows. Without these essential services, Kapp and his supporters were forced to give up and ran away.
Despite the failure of the Spartacist Uprising in 1919. left wing workers in the Ruhr continued to strike and took over several towns. This became known as the Red Rising. The government, now back in Berlin sent in the Frei Korps, who succesfully put down the rebellion after killing over 1000 workers.
There were many assassinations in the early years of the Republic, reflecting the unhappiness of many people with their government.
What rebellions occurred during the Hyperinflation crisis?
Rebellions during the hyperinflation crisis
Unsurprisingly, the hardships of 1923 led to many uprisings as groups struggled to take power from the government.
- A nationalist group called Black Reichswehr rebelled in September.
- Communists took over the governments of Saxony and Thuringia in October.
- Communists also took over the Rhineland and declared it independent in the same month.
- A newly-formed fascist group called the Nazis attempted a putsch in Munich in November. This event brought Hitler to national prominence after he was jailed for nine months for his part in the attempted coup.
How did Hitler join the Nazi party?
The German Workers’ Party, led by Anton Drexler, was formed in 1919. Hitler joined it as a spy for the government. He had stayed in the army after the war ended and the government was using the army to spy on suspect political groups. Hitler found that he agreed with many of the party’s ideas. Hitler soon became its leader and set out to win more support. He also changed the party name to the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) or Nazi Party for short.
In 1921, he set up a Nazi Army, the SA (Stormtroopers): they were also called the Brown shirts because of their uniforms. They were supposed to protect Nazi speakers at rallies. In fact, they often beat up opponents.
- He designed a symbol for the Nazis- the Swastika.
- He set up a Nazi newspaper to spread their ideas.
Hitler and the Nazis soon became well known in Bavaria. Even though they were not well known in the rest of Germany, Hitler thought their ideas would win them support. As the economic crisis of 1923 swept across Germany, Hitler decided the time was right to seize power by force.
This became known as the Munich Putsch, in November 1923.
What did Hitler do on 8th November 1923 putsch?
Why did he do it
What were the results of this?
It was led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis, who were very angry at the embarrassing occupation of the Ruhr and the hyper-inflation. On the night of 8th November1923 Gustav Kahr, the leader of the Bavarian right wing government, was speaking at a meeting in the Beer Hall. Hitler and General Ludendorff interrupted with 600 Stormtroopers. They forced Kahr to help the putsch. The next day the Nazis took control of key buildings in Bavaria, but Kahr had alerted the army and police, who blocked their route. Firing broke out, killing 16 Nazis and 3 policemen. Hitler’s shoulder was dislocated as he ran off. The Nazis were defeated in the fight. Hitler and other Nazis were arrested. He was put on trial for treason in 1924, but was given only 5 years in prison and was let out after less than 9 months. This shows that the judge was sympathetic with his ideas. His putsch failed because he over-estimated his support, and did not have the support of the army and police.
The results of the putsch
- Hitler used his trial to get publicity.
- In prison he wrote his book, “Mein Kampf” and planned how to make his party stronger. He decided to try to take power by legal methods
Who is Gustav Stresseman?
What was his significance in the hyperinflation crisis of 1923?
How did he get the French to leave the ruhr?
In November 1923, the Weimar Republic faced its worst crisis with the Ruhr Crisis and hyperinflation. Gustav Stresemann, leader of the German People’s Party (DVP) helped to save it.
In 1923, Stresemann was elected Chancellor. He replaced the worthless German mark with a new currency, the Rentenmark.
Stresemann saw that the strikes were making things worse. He ordered the workers back to work.
He got the French to leave by promising to begin reparations payments. These actions were essential to stop hyperinflation. However, they made Stresemann so unpopular he lost his job as Chancellor. However, Stresemann did a lot as Foreign Minister to improve Germany’s reputation in Europe. This meant that Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations in 1926 and trade in Europe again. Stresemann won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1929. Unfortunately, he died four months later.
How did Stresseman fix Hyperinflation?
Stresemann’s single greatest achievement as Chancellor was to end hyperinflation. He did this in just three months by:
- Calling off the ‘passive resistance’ of German workers in the Ruhr. Production increased.
- Promising to begin reparations payments again. This persuaded France and Belgium to end the occupation of the Ruhr by 1925.
- Introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark. This stabilised prices as only a limited number were printed meaning money rose in value restoring confidence in the economy
- Reducing the government budget (700,000 government employees lost their jobs)
How did International Relations change under Stresseman?
What was the Locarno treaty?
What was the Kellog-Briand Pact
- Locarno Treaties 1925. In October 1925 Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect their post-Versailles borders. Germany had previously complained bitterly about their loss of territory, but now the Germans were accepting the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
- Germany’s entry into the League of Nations 1926. When the League of Nations was set up as part of the Versailles agreement Germany was initially excluded. By signing the Locarno Treaties, Germany showed that it was accepting the Versailles settlement and so a year later was accepted as a permanent member of the Council of League, making it one of the most powerful countries in the League.
- Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928. Germany was one of 62 countries that signed up to this agreement, which committed its signatories to settling disputes between them peacefully.
These developments meant that Germany was accepted into the emerging ‘international community’ that sought to work together during the 1920s to avoid another destructive war. This ethos of collaboration and peaceful cooperation only lasted, however, until the onset of the Great Depression following the Wall Street Crash of October 1929.
Stresemann had also established the principle of future revision of the Versailles settlement for the German nation, in the ‘open frontiers’ approach in Eastern Europe. He also continued to maintain good relations with the Soviet Union, and signed the Treaty of Berlin in 1926. This Soviet-German agreement renewed the Treaty of Rapallo that they had signed back in 1922. As well as promoting economic co-operation this treaty set up the opportunity for Germany to secretly build up its armed forces on Soviet territory, so the Allies couldn’t find out about this breach of the Versailles treaty. This included the training of German pilots at a Soviet air base.
How did Gustav Stresseman renegotiate reparations?
What was the difference between the young plan and dawes plan?
The payment of reparations, which had caused the hyperinflation crisis in the first place, had to resume, but Stresemann’s decisive actions in the autumn of 1923 gained Germany the sympathy of the Allies. They agreed to renegotiate payments and this led to two new repayment plans in the next five years:
Introduced Retenmark
In the Dawes plan, payments were lowered and Germany would borrow 800m marks from the USA
In the Young plan, Loan term were increased and amount was reduced by 20%
Compare the Dawes and The Young plan
What were the signs of recovery during Stresseman era?
Recovery:
- By 1928 industrial production was higher than 1913
- Between 1925 and 1929 exports rose 40%
- Hourly wages rose every year from 1924 to 1929
Signs of weakness during stressemann era?
Signs of weakness:
- Agricultural production was lower than pre-WW1
- Germany spent more on imports than exports
- Unemployment was 1.9 million in 1929 and increasing
- Depedency on US loans
- The goverment spent more than it recieved in taxes
How far did Germany Recover?
How far did Germany recover?
Germany experienced recovery under Stresemann.
- Germany was more prosperous (richer) and more welcome in Europe. There was more investment because of confidence in the currency.
- The government gained more support.
- Extreme political parties like the Communists and Nazis were still finding it difficult to get support.
- However, there were still many political parties in Germany, and no party could get enough votes to rule on their own. This led to coalition governments, where the parties often argued, making it difficult to make any decisions.
- The huge US loans made Germany dependent on aid from the USA and also on foreign investment. Even Stresemann feared that Germany relied too much on American loans.
- The economy needed more time to recover fully. It also needed a period of steady growth. However, as early as 1927 both industry and farming were in trouble again. Farmers still had low wages and the middle classes had not made up for the loss of savings suffered because of hyperinflation.
Also what would happen if America wanted her loans back? This was to prove disastrous in 1929.
What was culture like pre-WW1 in Germany?
What was the Golden age of Germany?
What were German reactions towards Change in culture??
Tight controls on entertainment and culture These controls were removed under Weimar Germany and there were cultural changes along with economic and political ones.
People had more money to spend and Berlin became the pleasure capital of Europe. The lack of censorship also attracted writers and artists to Berlin, so German culture boomed.
Berlin especially, that saw developments in architecture, art and the cinema. There was more expressionism and less censorship.
German reactions
Some Germans hated these cultural changes and thought that they were leading Germany into a moral decline. They wanted art, music, theatre, fil and literature to reflect the traditional culture of Germany. The Nazis openly criticised the nightclubs and art of this time. When Hitler came to power in 1933 (which you will look at later on), many artists, including Fritz Lang, had to flee Germany.
What was the greater Berlin Act?
The importance of Berlin
The Greater Berlin Act of 1920 made Berlin the third largest city in the world and established it as the centre of German cultural and intellectual life. Many of Germany’s most prominent artists, writers, academics and performers were based in the city.
How did Education change in the Weimar republic?
Education and intellectual life
Berlin was a melting pot of intellectual development. Weimar Germany became associated with two areas in particular:
- Science. Towering figures like Max Plank and Albert Einstein worked in Germany in the 1920s, and Einstein received his Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921.
- Philosophy. One of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, Martin Heidegger, published his major work Being and Time in 1927..
How did Visual Arts change?
What was the dada movement?
Who was Otto Dix?
Visual arts
The most influential visual arts movement in Weimar was the Bauhaus School, founded by Walter Gropius in the town of Weimar in 1919.
Bauhaus’ impact on German architecture was limited because the movement only focused on architecture after 1927 and it was then suppressed by the Nazis in 1933. After this most of its followers fled abroad, where they developed their work further. However, Gropius did design several apartment blocks that are still in use today.
In fine art, there were two main movements that influenced German art:
- Dada. The Dada movement started in Zurich during World War One. It was a protest against the traditional conventions of art and western culture, in which the war had begun. Its output included photography, sculpture, poetry, painting and collage. Artists included Marcel Duchamp and Hans Arp.
- New Objectivity. The New Objectivity movement started in Germany in the aftermath of World War One. It challenged its predecessor, Expressionism, which was a more idealistic and romantic movement. Artists returned to a more realistic way of painting, reflecting the harsh reality of war. Artists included Otto Dix and George Grosz.
This came to an end with the Nazis
How did Music change during Weimar republic?
Music
Music in Weimar was dominated by three themes:
- Modern classical. Composers like Kurt Weill and Alan Berg composed classical pieces and operas.
- Jazz. The increasing influence of American culture brought jazz music to Berlin and Munich, with classical composers often crossing over into what was known as ‘atonal’ music, or jazz.
- Cabaret. This became popular in Berlin, where young people could sit around in clubs, drinking and watching musical performances.
How did Cinema flourish during the weimar republic?
Cinema
The German film and cinema industry boomed during the 1920s. The main features of the industry were as follows:
- The economic disruption of the Weimar period produced an expressionist style in German film-making, with films often having unrealistic sets and featuring exaggerated acting techniques. The shortage of funding gave rise to the Kammerspielfilm movement, with atmospheric films made on small sets with low budgets.
- Expressionist film-makers favoured darker storylines and themes, including horror and crime.
- The most prominent film directors of the time were Fritz Lang and F.W. Murnau.
How did the reputation of decadence in Berlin change during the weimar republic?
Reputation for decadence
After World War One, Berlin became a place where behaviour previously thought of as immoral flourished:
- cabarets became known as places where transvestites and openly gay men and women could visit, despite homosexuality being illegal at the time
- prostitution flourished
- Drug Dealing increased
- organised crime, and gangs called Ringvereine, grew
Weimar’s reputation for decadence and excess did not continue into the Nazi period. The Nazis disapproved of what they viewed as the immoral behaviour flourishing in Germany’s cities. The totalitarian nature of the regime meant that cultural life, such as the theatre, music and film, came under the control of Goebbels’ Ministry of Propaganda. In addition, many of the leading lights of German cultural and academic life were Jewish, and thus left Germany as the Nazis began to restrict Jews’ rights.
How did the Nazis grow in the 1920s
The Growth of the Nazi Party in the 1920s
When Hitler went to prison the Nazi Party was banned. When he was let out in 1924 it was re-formed. Even so, the Nazis were not yet a strong political group. Hitler had decided while he was in prison that the best way for the Nazis to seize power was not by a putsch but legally, in elections. At first the Nazi Party found it difficult to get support. Germany’s economy was recovering under Gustav Stresemann’s leadership and people were less willing to listen to the Nazis. They began to lose seats in the Reichstag. (German Parliament) as shown in the following election results: -
However, Hitler worked hard at gaining the Nazis more support.
He set up meetings and mass rallies to increase membership. He wanted as many people as possible to hear him make rousing (exciting) speeches.
Membership rose from 27,000 in 1925 to 100,000 in 1928. The Nazis formed a youth league and a teachers’ league. The SS was founded by Hitler as an elite private army within the larger SA. The first annual rally was held at Nurmberg in 1927.
Despite all these measures, the Nazi party remained a minority party until the Great Depression hit Germany in 1929.
What is the Depression?
America had become rich after the First World War, through manufacturing and selling their goods around the world. Many Americans bought shares in companies, hoping to make more profit. Some even borrowed money from banks so they could buy shares. However, many Americans did not make as much money as they had hoped. In October 1929, shares were sold quickly, which created a panic. This meant others felt they had to sell their shares. This created a drop in the value of shares. In the end many people lost money and were ruined. This became known as the ‘Wall Street Crash’. The crash started the Great Depression and stock prices did not reach the same level until late 1954.
What is the impact of great depression on Germany?
How did Unemployment grow?
In October 1929, Stresemann died and, shortly after, the USA stock market collapsed in the Wall Street Crash. This led to a worldwide downturn in trade, industry and agriculture (farming). Germany was hit hard because of two factors:
- firstly the USA demanded repayment of the loans to Germany through the Dawes and Young Plans;
- secondly, international trade collapsed as the USA and other countries stopped importing goods in order to keep their own industries going.
In Germany the effects were disastrous. Businesses and factories closed, industrial production fell by 50%, and unemployed people grew rapidly then to 6 million by the end of 1932. Long queues of hungry and despairing people lined up for help from charities. Proud parents searched through piles of rubbish for scraps of food or lumps of coal to heat their homes. Food prices collapsed as people could not afford to spend so much. Farmers were very badly affected.
Depression
What were the benefits for business owners in Hitlers economic policy?
Many industrialists (owners of large businesses) gained a lot from Nazi policies. Many profited from the Nazi rearmament programme. Companies such as chemicals giant IT Farben secured huge government contracts to make explosives, fertilisers and even artificial oil. Other big companies that benefited included Mercedes and Volkswagen.
Industrialists were also happy that the threat of communism was ended by Hitler.
Profits for the owners of small businesses were a lot more mixed. Those who produced consumer goods or owned small shops often struggled.
Small business - Rules on opening and running small businesses were tightened, which resulted in 20 per cent of them closing.
What was the impact of War on Germany?
RARE
Rationing
Area Bombing
Refugees
Employment
- Rationing of food was introduced on 27 August 1939 and a points system for clothing was introduced in October 1939.
- Autarky and rearmament meant consumer goods were already expensive due to low supply.
- Germans’ diets became more monotonous, with lots of bread, potatoes and preserves.
- There were meat shortages due to lack of imports from the USA.
- Many Germans feared a repeat of the shortages experienced during World War One.
- Food entitlements depended upon the importance of individuals to the war effort: ‘normal consumers’, ‘heavy workers’ ‘very heavy workers’ – there were also categories for children, pregnant women.
- Jews’ food entitlements were set below Aryans’.
- The winter of 1939-40 was exceptionally cold and there were shortages of coal.
What were the three phases of the persecution of the Jews?
Phase one - Polish ghettos
The German conquest of Poland in autumn 1939 brought three million more Jews under Nazi control. Polish Jews were confined to ghettos and camps in terrible conditions, where hundreds of thousands died of starvation and disease.
Hitler is believed to have given the order to begin the attempted extermination of Europe’s 11 million Jews in 1941. This so-called ‘Final Solution’ to the question of what to do with Europe’s Jews led to phase two.
Phase two - mass killings begin
During the German invasion of the USSR (June 1941), four specially created SS units called Einsatzgruppen followed behind the German army. Their task was to round up Jews, as well as communist officials and Russian army officers, and execute them. The victims were taken to the edge of towns and villages, forced to dig mass graves and then shot and buried in huge numbers. By the end of 1941, 500,000 Jews had been killed in this way and in total the victims of Einsatzgruppen numbered around 1.2 million.
These mass killings were expensive and time consuming. The need to make the extermination process more efficient led to phase three.
Phase three - extermination camps
Reinhard Heydrich
On 20 January 1942 Reinhard Heydrich, the head of the Sicherheitsdienst, held a conference in the Wansee suburb of Berlin. At this meeting it was agreed that all Jews under German occupation would be brought to Poland, where those fit enough would be worked to death and the rest exterminated. This led to the horror of the Nazi death camps, six of which were built specifically to murder those brought to them.
The biggest and most notorious camp was Auschwitz-Birkenau, where 2.5 million Jews were murdered. Jews arrived at the camps on trains, where they were separated into two groups: those fit enough to work and those to be killed immediately – usually women, children and the elderly. The latter group were ushered into what they thought were showers, where they were gassed to death using pellets of cyanide known as Zyklon B.
Altogether, it is thought around six million Jews were murdered during the Holocaust, as well as several million others, including gypsies, homosexuals, Soviet prisoners of war, Jehovah’s Witnesses and other ‘undesirables’. Up to 88 per cent of Polish Jews were killed and Jews from all over Nazi-occupied Europe were sent to the camps
What happened to Germany after the war?
Germany’s defeat and the aftermath
The first German defeat in Europe came at Stalingrad in February 1943. Later, in 1945, Germany was invaded from both the east and west. The allied forces in the west, led by American divisions, crossed the Rhine into Germany from the beginning of March. By April the Soviet forces had encircled Berlin in the east, and Hitler committed suicide there on April 30. Germany surrendered to the Allies a few days later.
Germany was then occupied and divided into four military zones, each controlled by one of the four allied powers: USSR, USA, Britain and France. Its capital Berlin was similarly divided amongst the occupiers.
What was the difference between the League of German maidens and the Hitler youth?
Facts about the Hitler youth
How did young people react to the Hitler Youth?
Many school textbooks were banned or burned. New ones were written. The Nazis didn’t want young people to read just any book.
How did Nazis control culture?
Aryan Art depicted strong Aryan men and was promoted instead of the regular expressionist art.
Anyone’s culture who opposed Hitler was banned. (Jews, socialist, anarchist or communist)
How did Nazis make Germany into a police state?
By August 1934 Hitler was a dictator with absolute power. In order to maintain this power he needed organisations that could control the population to ensure absolute loyalty to the Führer. After the demise of the SA on the Night of the Long Knives, there were three main interlinked organisations (in addition to the regular German police force) involved in controlling the German people through spying, intimidation and if necessary imprisonment:
Legal System
Schutzstaffel (SS)
Gestapo
Sicherheitsdienst (SD) - This was the intelligence gathering agency of the SS. It was responsible for the security of Hitler and other top Nazis and was led by Himmler’s right hand man, Reinhard Heydrich.
