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Geology > GEOLOGY LECTURE 1 > Flashcards

GEOLOGY LECTURE 1 Flashcards

1
Q

It is the study of earth

A

Geology

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2
Q

It is concerned with the earth and the rocks of which it is composed, the processes by which they were formed during geological time, wnd the modelling of the earth’s surface in the past and at the present day.

A

The science of geology

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3
Q

This term is used for those materials of many kinds which form the greater part of the relatively thin outer shell, or crust of the earth.

A

Rocks

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4
Q

Rocks are made up of ________ units

A

Small crystalline

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5
Q

Rocks are made up of small crystalline units. What are these crystalline units called?

A

Minerals

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6
Q

In geology this is a hard material.

A

Rocks

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7
Q

In geology, these are either sediments which have not yet become rock-like or a granular residue from a rock that has completely weathered.

A

Soil

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8
Q

It is an interdisciplinary field which uses geoscience to solve engineering and environmental problems.

A

Geology engineering

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9
Q

It is a branch of geology concerned with the study of Strata and stratification.

A

Stratigraphy

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10
Q

What are the 2 sub-fields of stratigraphy.

A

LithoStratigraphy and Biostratigraphy

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11
Q

The visible layering of bedding on strata is due to?

A

Physical Contrast in rock type

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12
Q

These are the changes in environments of deposition.

A

Facies

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13
Q

This is a basic concept of stratigraphy that states: in an undeformed stratigraphic sequence, the oldest strata occur at the base of the sequence.

A

Law of Superposition

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14
Q

It is the classification of bodies of rock based on the observable lithologic properties of the strata and their relative stratigraphic positions.

A

Lithostratigraphy

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15
Q

This studies the changes in the relative proportions of trace elements and isotopes within and between lithologic unit.

A

Chemostratigraphy

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16
Q

This type of LithoStratigraphy documents the often cyclic changes in the relative proportions of minerals, grain size, thickness of sediment layers(varves) and fossil diversity with time.

A

Cyclostratigraphy

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17
Q

This is the study of strata based on fossil evidence in the rock layers.

A

Biostratigraphy/Paleontologic stratigraphy

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18
Q

What was biologic stratigraphy based on?

A

William smith’s Principle of faunal succession

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19
Q

This is a branch of geology concerned with establishing the absolute ages of strata.

A

Chronostatigtaphy

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20
Q

This curve attempts to define a global historical sea-level curve according to inferences from worldwide stratigraphy patterns.

A

Vail curve

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21
Q

What are the 3 rock types?

A

Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic rocks.

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22
Q

This is the process that transforms and moves rocks.

A

Rock-Cycle

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23
Q

How many minerals have been identified?

A

3500

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24
Q

What are the two types of igneous rocks?

A

Intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks

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25
Q

What type of igneous rocks are plutons made out of?

A

Intrusive igneous rocks

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26
Q

What are the largest types of plutons called?

A

Batholiths

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27
Q

Cooling speed of igneous rocks with large mineral crystals.

A

Slow

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28
Q

What kind of igneous rocks are formed from lavas in volcanoes?

A

Extrusive igneous rocks

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29
Q

The word igneous is from latin that means fire-formed.

A
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30
Q

What is the most common type of igneous rock?

A

Basalt

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31
Q

What is the type of igneous rocks formed from magma?

A

Intrusive igneous rocks

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32
Q

What are rocks from deep magma called?

A

Plutonic

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33
Q

What are the two best known igneous rocks?

A

Basalt, and Granite

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34
Q

What are rocks that are rich in Magnesium and Iron called?

A

Mafic rock

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35
Q

These rocks are rich in Feldspar and Quarts.

A

Felsic rocks

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36
Q

This is the cementing, compacting, and hardening of sediments to form sedimentary rocks.

A

Lithification

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37
Q

It is a zone in rocks where movement occurred

A

Faults

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38
Q

A fault caused by pulling strength and downward slip

A

Normal faults

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39
Q

One block is pushed over the other due to compression.

A

Reverse fault

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40
Q

Horizontal movement occurs. Because of the high friction of fault places, movement occurs not gradually, but in short events, here are earthquakes occur

A

Strike-slip fault

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41
Q

This is formed in relief of stress which has accumulated in rocks.

A

Fractures

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42
Q

These are fractures on which relative displacement of the two sides of the break has taken place.

A

Fault

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43
Q

These are fractures where no displacement has occurred.

A

Joint

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44
Q

This is a fold downwards

A

Syncline

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45
Q

This is a fold upwards

A

Anticline

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46
Q

If the movements continue after folding a fold can break, and becomes a ________.

A

Thrust

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47
Q

An arched fold in which the two limbs dip away from one another is called __________

A

Antiform

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48
Q

This is antiform but the rocks that form the core are older than the outer strata.

A

Anticline

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49
Q

A fold in which the limbs dip towards one another is a _________

A

Synform

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50
Q

This is a synform but the strata forming the core of the fold is younger than those below them

A

Syncline

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51
Q

A Strata that has behaved as a brittle material.

A

Competent

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52
Q

A strata which flowed as ductile material.

A

Incompetent

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53
Q

This term is used for structures produced by materials such as rock salt or mobile granite which have moved upwards and pierced through the overlying strata.

A

Diapir

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54
Q

This is a group of parallel joints.

A

Joint sets

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55
Q

Two or more joint sets that intersect

A

Joint system

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56
Q

Developed from the drying and freezing, resultant shrinkage of sedimentary deposits.

A

Shrinkage-joints

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57
Q

Joint parallels the axis of the fold and are concentrated in the fold hinge where tension is at greatest.

A

Tension joints

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58
Q

Joints that cross many bedding planes are called ________

A

Master joints

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59
Q

This is the general term for the Land areas continually being reduced and their shapes modified by weathering and erosion.

A

DENUDATION

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60
Q

This is the breakdown of minerals into new compounds by the action of chemical agents, although they act slowly, produce noticeable effects especially in soluble rocks.

A

Decomposition or chemical weathering

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61
Q

The break down of rocks into smaller particles by the action of temperature, by impact from raindrops and by abrasion from mineral particles carried by the wind.

A

DISINTEGRATION OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING

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62
Q

Decomposition and Disintegration of the ground that are directly associated with the activities of animals and plants.

A

Biological Weathering

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63
Q

What are the agents of erosion?

A

Rivers, wind, moving ice, and water waves.

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64
Q

This is the term for the weathered material.

A

Detritus

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65
Q

The removal of material.

A

Erosion

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66
Q

This is the scientific study of earth surface processes, including erosion, deposition and formation of landforms and sediments.

A

Geomorphology

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67
Q

The breaking down and changing of rocks as a result of exposure to the environment

A

Weathering

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68
Q

In what climate chemical reactions are most intense?

A

When the climate is most wet and hot

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69
Q

The altering of rocks as a result of exposure to different substances.

A

Decomposition

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70
Q

Processes commonly involved with Decomposition

A

SOLUTION, OXIDATION, REDUCTION, HYDRATION, HYDROLYSIS, LEACHING, AND CATION EXCHANGE,

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71
Q

This layer of rock ranges in depth from only a few centimeters to a meter or more. It has a mixture of inorganic particles and vegetable humus and high porosity.

A

Top-soil

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72
Q

In this layer is a mixture of soil with rock fragments, with decreasing organic content, and then into weathered rock and finally unweathered rock

A

Sub-soil

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73
Q

What are the terms for layers of soil in Pedology?

A

A-horizon, B-Horizon, C-Horizon

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74
Q

What is the C-Horizon?

A

Rock at depth

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75
Q

What is the A-Horizon?

A

Soil

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76
Q

B-Horizon

A

Sub-soil

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77
Q

The terms A-horizon, B-horizon, C-horizon are used in?

A

Pedology

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78
Q

A vertical column showing the sequence of soil layers.

A

Soil-profile

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79
Q

Dissociation of minerals into ions, greatly aided by the presence of CO2 in the soil-profile, which forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) with percolating rainwater

A

Solution

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80
Q

The combination of oxygen with a mineral to form oxides and hydroxides or any other reaction in which the oxidation number of the oxidized elements is increased

A

Oxidation

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81
Q

The release of oxygen from a mineral to its surrounding environment: ions leave the mineral structure as the oxidation number of the reduced elements is decreased

A

Reduction

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82
Q

Absorption of water molecules into the mineral structure. This normally results in expansion, some clays expand as much as 60%, and by admitting water hasten the processes of solution, oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis.

A

Hydration

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83
Q

Hydrogen ions in percolating water replace mineral cations: no oxidation-reduction occurs.

A

Hydrolysis

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84
Q

The migration of ions produced by the above processes. The mobility of ions depends upon their ionic potentials.

A

Leaching

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85
Q

Absoption onto the surface of negatively charged clay of positively charged cations in solution, especially Calcium, hydrogen, Potassium, and Magnesium.

A

Cation Exchange

86
Q

In limestone the process of Decomposition is dependent on?

A

Feeble acids such as CO2 and SO2

87
Q

These are Ground surface that show depression that may continue downwards as irregular channels.

A

Pipes

88
Q

Vertical joints that are widened by solution.

A

Grikes

89
Q

Continued solution to grikes that may lead to the formation of _________.

A

Swallow Hallows

90
Q

Rough Shafts which communicate with solution passages at lower levels along which water flows underground.

A

Shallow holes

91
Q

Where are swallow holes often situated?

A

At the intersection point of the vertical joints.

92
Q

What causes Disintegration?

A

The effects of changing temperature on rocks.

93
Q

This occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually breaking the rock apart.

A

Freeze-thaw

94
Q

Types of Disintegration

A

Frost action, Exfoliation, abrasion, and Root wedging

95
Q

The freezing/thawing of ice cracks rocks

A

Frost action

96
Q

Grinding of rock against rock

A

Abrasion

97
Q

Plant roots growing into rocks

A

Root Wedging

98
Q

Altering hot/cold cracks rocks

A

Exfoliation

99
Q

Processes of Disintegration

A

Mechanical unloading, Mechanical loading, thermal loading, wetting and drying, crystallization, Pneumatic loading.

100
Q

Vertical expansion due to the reduction of vertical load by erosion. This will open existing fractures and may permit the creation of new fractures.

A

Mechanical unloading

101
Q

Impacts on rock, and abrasion, by sand and silt size wind-borne particles in deserts. Impact on soil and weak rocks by rain drops during intense rainfall storms.

A

Mechanical loading

102
Q

Expansion by the freezing of water in pores and fractures in cold regions, or by the heating of rocks in hot regions. Contractions by the rolling of rocks and soils in cold regions

A

Thermal loading

103
Q

Expansion and contractions associated with the repeated absorption and loss of water molecules from mineral surfaces and strictures

A

Wetting and Dryinf

104
Q

Expansion of pores and fissures by _________ within them of minerals that were originally in solution. Expansion is only severe when ___________ occurs within a confined space

A

Crystallization

105
Q

The repeated loading by waves of air trapped at the head of fractures exposed in the wave zone of a sea cliff.

A

Pneumatic loading

106
Q

These living organisms grow on essentially bare rock surfaces and create a more humid chemical microenvironment.

A

Lichens and Mosses

107
Q

The physical interaction of flowing water and the natural channels of rivers and streams. This includes the motion of sediments and erosion or deposition on river beds

A

Fluvial Process

108
Q

What bodies of water are Fluvial processes associated.

A

Rivers and streams and landforms and deposits created by them.

109
Q

The physical interaction of Stream or rivers that are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps.

A

Glaciofluvial or Fluvioglacial

110
Q

How many ways can erosion of moving water happen?

A

2

111
Q

Sediments in rivers are transported as?

A

Bedload or suspended load

112
Q

This is the coarser fragments which move close to the bed.

A

Bedload

113
Q

These are finer fragments carried in the water.

A

Suspended load

114
Q

A specific velocity at which the grains start to move.

A

Entrainment Velocity.

115
Q

In rivers, areas where more particles are dropped.

A

Alluvial or flood plains

116
Q

In rivers, these are called the dropped particles

A

Alluvium

117
Q

In earth science, this is the action of surface processes that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the earth’s crust and then transports it to another location.

A

Erosion

118
Q

Agents of erosion inclusion:

A

Rainfall
Bedrock wear in rivers
Coastal erosion by the sea and waves
Glacial plucking, abrasion, and scour
Areal flooding
Wind abrasion
Ground water processes
Mass movement processes in steep landscapes like landslides and debris flows.

119
Q

How many times did human activities increase the rate of erosion globally?

A

10-40 times

120
Q

What are the two primary causes of land degradation?

A

Water and wind erosion

121
Q

Is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or landmass. Can also refer to the buildup of sediments from organically derived matter or chemical processes.

A

Deposition

122
Q

When forces responsible for sediment transportation are no longer sufficient to overcome the forces of gravity and friction, creating a resistance to motion.

A

Null-point hypothesis

123
Q

The geomorphic movement by which soil, sand, regolith, and rock move downslope typically as a solid, continuous or discontinuous mass, largely under the force of gravity, frequently with characteristics of flow as in Debris flows and mudfloes

A

Mass wasting, slope movement, mass movement

124
Q

Is the formation, movement and recession of glaciers.

A

Glaciation

125
Q

Are landforms created by the action of glaciers.

A

Glacial landform

126
Q

How many of the world’s land area do glaciers cover?

A

10% or 14.9 million km²

127
Q

What are the 2 methods that erosion by glaciers occurs?

A

Abrasion and Quarrying

128
Q

This is the underlying material under the rocks.

A

Bedrock

129
Q

Is the process by which blocks of bedrock are removed by overriding ice

A

Quarrying

130
Q

An example of quarrying

A

Roches Moutonnées

131
Q

In glaciers, is the process in which glaciers add sand, minerals and other materials to the bedrock underneath.

A

Deposition

132
Q

A rounded hill or mound formed by the streamlined movement of glacial ice across rock debris.

A

Drumlin

133
Q

A depositional feature of high- relief forms consisting of mounds, ridges and knobs, some of which are doughnut-shaped

A

Hummocky moraines

134
Q

Bow-shaped ridges of varying heights and lengths

A

Recessional moraines, Cross-valley, ribbed, De Geer, washboard

135
Q

Single, prominent ridges marking the limit of glacial advance.

A

Terminal moraines

136
Q

Consists of an irregular blanket of till deposited under a glacier

A

Ground moraine

137
Q

Is an unsorted, unstratified glacial sediments

A

Glacial till

138
Q

The mixture of glacial till.

A

Clay, silt, sand, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders

139
Q

Can originate from the surface, inside or at the base of glaciers. Streams that can become an interconnecting network of shallow channels that carry and deposit gravel and sand.

A

Meltwater

140
Q

The process of breaking down and dispersing particles by wind movement

A

Wind erosion

141
Q

The process of the wearing away of a solid object due to the impact of particles carried by the wind.

A

Wind abrasion

142
Q

Rocks with flat, wind-abraded surface are reffered to as __________.

A

Ventifacts

143
Q

The boundary of the continent/island. Describes the area where the land meets the sea or the ocean.

A

Coastline

144
Q

The boundary of the land.

A

Shoreline

145
Q

A landform along the coast of an ocean or sea.

A

Beach

146
Q

Tides that are higher than normal.

A

Spring tides

147
Q

Tides that are lower than normal.

A

Neap tides

148
Q

The horizontal movement of water or air.

A

Currents

149
Q

What are waves often called.

A

Shakers

150
Q

Parts of a beach

A

Swash zone, Beach face, Wrack line, berm

151
Q

Is alternately covered and exposed by wave run-up

A

Swash zone

152
Q

Sloping sections below berm that is exposed to the swash of the eaves

A

Beach face

153
Q

The highest reach of the daily tide where organic and inorganic debris is deposited by eave action.

A

Wrack line

154
Q

A nearly horizontal portion that stays dry except during extremely high tides and storms may have sand dunes.

A

Berm

155
Q

Layers of soil or sediments on the beach.

A

Beach profile.

156
Q

A form of coast where the action of marine waves has formed steep cliffs that may or may not be precipitous.

A

Cliffed coast also called abrasion coast

157
Q

The continuous action of marine waves on the coastline.

A

Abrasion

158
Q

From when a river carrying sediments reaches another body of water.

A

Deltas

159
Q

Deltas form when river reaches:

A

-A body of standing water, such as a lake, ocean, reservoir.
-Another river that cannot remove sediments quickly enough to stop delta formation.
-Inland region where the water spreads out and deposits sediments.

160
Q

A bar of rock, sand, coral, or similar material, lying beneath the surface of water.

A

Reef

161
Q

Built by microorganisms or organisms that don’t grow a skeletal framework.

A

Mounds

162
Q

Caused by on shore winds pushing water on to the coastline on the left side of the hurricane as it spins counter clockwise.

A

Storm Surge

163
Q

They are immense sea waves, which are produced by underwater events such as earthquakes, mud slide, and volcanic eruptions.

A

Tsunamis

164
Q

It is derived from many sources, most come from rainfall and melting snow.

A

Ground water or meteoric ground water.

165
Q

The passage of water through the surface of the ground.

A

Infiltration

166
Q

It is described as the downward movement of water to the saturated zone at depth.

A

Percolation

167
Q

The word used to describe precipitation that has infiltrated into the ground and travels down until it reaches the impervious stratum where it is stored as groundwater.

A

Ground water

168
Q

Where is groundwater stored?

A

In the pores present in the geological formations.

169
Q

The process in which water from saturated ground zones moves towards rivers, lakes, and seas.

A

Ground-water flow

170
Q

The circulation of water.

A

Hydrological Cycle

171
Q

The seas and oceans contain approximately _________ of all the water presently involved in the cycle.

A

97%

172
Q

Frozen soil

A

Permafrost

173
Q

The level of standing water in the ground.

A

Watertable

174
Q

Ground through which water flows at rates of significance to engineering works

A

Aquifers

175
Q

Are described as unconfined if their upper surface is ground level and confined if they are covered or confined by less permeable material.

A

Aquifers

176
Q

Aquifers whose upper surface is ground level.

A

Unconfined

177
Q

Aquifers that are covered or confined by less permeable materials.

A

Confined

178
Q

Ground through which water does not flow at such a rate.

A

Aquitard

179
Q

A surface ( bedding,fault,etc.) that separates ground of different hydrogeological character.

A

Hydrogeological boundary

180
Q

Where does infiltration readily occur?

A

Open fractures and joints in exposed rock.

181
Q

What happens when rainfall exceeds the infiltration capacity?

A

Results to flooding

182
Q

An underground boundary between the soil surface and the area where groundwater saturates spaces between sediments and cracks in rock.

A

Water Table

183
Q

Rocks and soils that transmit water with ease through their pores and fractures.

A

Aquifers

184
Q

Rock and soils that are difficult to transmit water.

A

Aquicludes

185
Q

A body of rock and/or sediments that holds groundwater.

A

Aquifers

186
Q

A geological formation which is impermeable to the flow of water.

A

Aquicludes

187
Q

A zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another.

A

Aquitard

188
Q

An impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable.

A

Aquifuge

189
Q

Aquitards comprises layers of

A

Clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity.

190
Q

Typical aquifers are:

A

Gravel, sand, sandstone, limestone, and fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks.

191
Q

Typical Aquicludes are:

A

Clay, mudstones, shales, evaporite, and unfractured igneous and metamorphic rocks.

192
Q

How does soils transmit water?

A

Through their pores

193
Q

How do most rocks transmit water?

A

Through their pores and fractures.

194
Q

one where the water table occurs within the aquifer layer. It is also called a water table or Phreatic aquifers.

A

Unconfined aquifers

195
Q

An aquifer confined between two impermeable beds such as aquifuge, aquiclude, etc.

A

Confined Aquifer

The water in the confined aquifer will be under greater pressure. Hence, the water level shown by the piezometer is always higher than the top level of the confined aquifer.

The recharge of confined aquifer occurs at a place where it exposes to the ground surface

196
Q

The pores between small clay particles.

A

Micropores

197
Q

Larger pore spacing between larger particles, such as sand.

A

Macropores

198
Q

The gap between solid particles, which contains water and air.

A

Soil Porosity

199
Q

A measure of the ease of flow of a fluid through a porous solid.

A

Permeability

200
Q

It is the material left behind by glaciers

A

Moraines

201
Q

The water in the pores of a soil

A

Pore pressure

202
Q

The pressure within a porewater, this refers to the pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock, in gaps between particles.

A

Pore water pressure

• Pore water pressures below the phreatic level of the groundwater are measured with PIEZOMETERS

203
Q

The magnitude of pore water pressure is dependent on:

A

• The depth below the water table.
• The conditions of seepage flow

204
Q

Pore water pressure at depth will be _______ since the void space between the solid particles is continuous.

A

Hydrostatic

205
Q

This is denoting the equilibrium of liquids and the pressure exerted by liquid at rest

A

Hydrostatic

206
Q

The tool is used to measure pore water pressured below the phreatic level of the groundwater?

A

Piezometers

A device used to measure pore water pressure in the ground by measuring the height to which a column of fluid rises against gravity

207
Q

How is the pore pressure determined in the Vadose zone?

A

By Capillarity

208
Q

The pore water pressure in the Vadose Zone is also referred to as?

A

Tension, Suction, Matric pressure

209
Q

Matric pressures are measured with _________.

A

Tensiometers

210
Q

This tool operates by allowing pore water to come into equilibrium with a reference pressure indicator through a permeable ceramic cup placed in contact with the soil

A

Tensiometers

211
Q

This is defined as the difference between the overburden pressure minus the measured pore pressure

A

Effective pressure
or
Difference pressure

•Difference pressure Governs the compactions process in sedimentary rocks.

Geology (15 decks)

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