GEOGRAPHY AND CULTURE: physical features and systems and human-environment interactions

Question 1

the 5 fundamental geographic themes

Answer 1

1. location
   - absolute: exact spot on Earth where a place can be found, using longitude and latitude coordinates
   - relative: location of one place in relation to other places
2. place: defined by everything in it - physical characteristics, climate, landforms, plant and animal life, etc.
3. region: a group of places that have physical and/or human characteristics in common
4. movement: refers to the way people, products, information, and ideas move from one place to another
5. human-environment interaction: looks at the relationships between people and their environment - how people adapt to their environment and how they change it

Question 2

the 6 essential elements of geography (a geographically informed person knows…)

Answer 2

1. the world in spatial terms: how to use maps and other geographic representations, tools. and technologies to acquire, process, and report info from a spatial perspective
2. places and regions: physical and human characteristics of places, how people create regions to interpret Earth’s complexity, and how culture and experience influence people’s perceptions of places and regions
3. physical systems: the physical processes that shape the patterns of the Earth’s surface and the characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems on earth’s surface
4. human systems: concepts that focus on people’s interactions w/ the environment
5. environment and society: how physical systems affect human systems, and the changes that occur in the meaning, use, distribution, and importance of resources
6. uses of geography: how to apply geography to interpret the past, present, and plan for the future

Question 3

definitions of: habitat, ecology, interdependence, and assimilation

Answer 3

a. habitat: refers to an environmental area where a particular species lives - vital bc a group of organisms (animals, birds, plants) depend on their habitat for their air, food, water, shelter, and other essentials to survive

b. ecology: the study of the environment that helps to understand how organisms live w/ each other in unique physical environments

c. interdependence: the state of being dependent upon one another
- EX. developing countries are dependent on developed countries for goods or aid AND developed countries are dependent on developing countries for primary products

d. assimilation: the integration of someone of minority status into a dominant culture

Question 4

definitions of: demographic cycle, complementarity, cultural convergence, and cultural diffusion

Answer 4

a. demographic cycle: refers to the evolution over time of the population profile of a country, region, or other defined geographical area

b. complementarity: refers to a demand for or deficit in a product at one location and a supply or surplus at another w/ out there is no economic rationale for any movement
- EX. a place w/ surplus crop production would be complementary to a place that has a demand for food

c. cultural convergence: the tendency for cultures to become more similar as they increasingly share technology and organizational structures
- EX. the English language

d. culture diffusion: the spreading out and merging of pieces from different culture

Question 5

basic characteristics of maps and globes

Answer 5

a. map key/legend: an inset on a map that explains the symbols, provides a scale and usually identifies the type of map projection use

b. latitude: horizontal lines that measure distance north or south of the equator

c. longitude: vertical lines that measure east or west of the meridian

d. scale: the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground
(EX. 1 in = 1 mile on a road map)

Question 6

advantages and disadvantages of maps and globes

Answer 6

a. globes:
> advantages: shows the correct relative sizes, shapes, distances, and directions between objects on the earth’s surface - not much distortion
> disadvantages: doesn’t give much information, like physical characteristics (i.e. mountains), gives incorrect impression about the curvature of the earth bc the radius on a globe isn’t accurate, can’t see both sides of the world simultaneously

b. maps:
> advantages: can show the earth’s entire surface and provides a lot more details
> disadvantages: major distortion

Question 7

major map projections (LOOK AT IMAGES OF EACH PROJECTION)

Answer 7

> > MERCATOR: a conformal projection that preserves angular relations among areas - displays correct shapes but exaggerates sizes in high-latitude areas

> > ROBINSON: earth’s features projected on an oval looking map
- areas near the poles are truer to size than in the mercator – some distortion affects every point

> > equal-area projections: portrays accurate sizes, but shapes of land masses and bodies of water are distorted

> > equidistant projections: preserves accurate distances from a given point (azimuthal projection)

> > gnomonic projections: preserves accurate directions from a given point - the scale changes based on distance from the center point→ distortion of shapes is greatest for areas furthest from that point

Question 8

geographic references, sources, and tools:
- atlases
- almanacs
- gazetteer
- encyclopedias

Answer 8

a. atlas: a book or collection of maps - population statistics, the location of natural resources, cultural and religious info, and political data are often found in an atlas
- there are a variety of atlases that focus on specific things

b. almanacs: is a set of dates and info for a calendar year. it’s a set of info, in or around one subject, that can be referenced and usually includes statistics, dates, predictions, celestial placements, tides, and more
- produced and update annually to reflect current info (EX. Guinness World Records)

c. gazetteer: a geographical index or directory used in conjunction w/ a map or atlas - contains info concerning the geographical makeup, social statistics, and physical features of a country, region, or continent

d. encyclopedias: a (set of) book that gives info on various subjects and aspects, arranged alphabetically
- the encyclopedia of geography: reviews and defines the concepts, research, and techniques in geography and interrelated fields

Question 9

geographic references, sources, and tools:
- satellite images
- geographic information systems

Answer 9

a. satellite images: tracks the changing human footprint across the globe, including rapidly growing cities, urban sprawl, and informal settlements
- used to measure, identify, and track human activity

b. geographic info systems (GIS): a system that creates, manages, analyzes, and maps all types of data. GIS connects data to a map, integrating location data w/ descriptive info (what things are like there)
- helps understand patterns, relationships, and geographic context
- benefits: improved communication and efficiency and better management and decision making

Question 10

geographic references, sources, and tools:
- global positioning systems
- computer databases

Answer 10

a. global positioning systems (GPS): space-based radio-navigation system that provides users w/ accurate info on position, velocity, and time anywhere in the world

b. computer databases: an organized collection of structured info, or data, typically store electronically in a computer system

Question 11

major landforms: Plains

Answer 11

a. broad flat stretches of land, often called prairies
b. study where these are:
- the Great Plains
- the Atlantic Coastal Plain - east coast of the US
- the Indo-Gangetic Plain
- the Northern EU plain - extends from southern UK to Russia
- the Pampas Plain - Argentina
- the West Siberian Plain - central Russia
- the North China Plain

Question 12

major landforms: mountain ranges

Answer 12

a. groups or chains of high, steep landforms
- the Himalayas (Asia): Mount Everest is the highest mountain in this range
- the Alps (south central EU)
- the Andes (western South Americas)
- the Rockies (western North America)
- the Transarctic (across Antartica)
- the Sierra Madres (Mexico)

Question 13

major landforms: plateaus

Answer 13

a. high plains or flat-topped mountains
- the Tibetan Plateau - Central Asia
- the Colorado Plateau
- the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau - China
- the Siberian Traps - Russia

Question 14

major landforms: valleys

Answer 14

a. depressions in the land between higher areas (such as mountains) - some are formed by the flow of rivers (i.e. the Nile River Valley), others are formed by glaciers (i.e. Yosemite Valley)
- the Rhine and Rhone Valleys - France
- the Grand Canyon
- the Rio Grande Valley

Question 15

major landforms: oceans

Answer 15

a. vast bodies of water, covering ~75% of the earth
- the Pacific Ocean: west of the Americas and east of Asia and Australia
- the Atlantic Ocean: eastern Americas to Western EU and Africa
- the Indian Ocean: east of Africa, south of Asia, west of Australia
- the Southern Ocean: encircling Antartica
- the Arctic Ocean: north

Question 16

major landforms: rivers

Answer 16

a. streams of water flowing over land through channels and emptying into oceans or gulfs
- the Amazon River - Brazil
- the Nile River - Egypt
- the Yukon River - Alaska/Canada
- the Mississippi River
- the Yellow River - China
- the Indus River - Pakistan/India
- the Ganges River - India

Question 17

major landforms: lakes and seas

Answer 17

a. the Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Superior, Erie - northern US and southern Canada
b. the Great Lakes of Africa: the largest is Lake Victoria
c. the Caspian Sea
d. the Dead Sea: Israel and Jordan
e. the Aral Sea: Russia

Question 18

physical features of the Earth:
- basins
- gulfs
- deltas
- capes
- straits
- isthmuses
- bays
- harbors
- peninsulas
- archipelagoes

Answer 18

a. basins: depressions or hollows in the earth’s surface, wholly or partly surrounded by higher land
b. gulfs: portions of an ocean partially enclosed by land
c. deltas: nearly flat plains of alluvial deposit between diverging branches of the mouth of the river - often triangular
d. capes: pieces of land jutting into the sea or some other large body of water
e. straits: narrow waterways joining 2 larger bodies of water
f. isthmuses: narrow strips of land, bordered on both sides by water, connecting 2 larger bodies of land
g. bays: bodies of water forming an indentation of the shoreline
h. harbors: protected from winds, waves, and current by other natural coastal features
i. peninsulas: pieces of land that project into bodies of water and are connected w/ a larger landmass
j. archipelagoes: large groups or chains of islands

Question 19

development of national, natural, and artificial boundaries

Answer 19

a. in some cases, national boundaries are established or altered following a war - in other cases, they result from differences in cultural or political ideals
- the primary purpose is to establish the limits of national sovereignty

b. natural boundaries: the location of the border is based on geographical features that make it difficult for settlers to migrate into the area or for invaders to cross
- EX. China and India are divided by the Himalayas and the Mexico-US border follows the Rio Grande River

c. artificial boundaries: boundary marker determined by or created by humans - tend to be linear have no geographical or cultural feature marking them
- EX. The Great Wall of China, the Berlin Wall

Question 20

processes that influence weather

Answer 20

a. weather: refers to atmospheric conditions over a short period time

b. weather conditions are caused by solar energy in the atmosphere which causes air to move. winds develop due to differences in atmospheric pressure between 2 places, blowing from area of high pressure to areas of low pressure. the path of the wind is also partly determined by the rotation of the earth.

Question 21

climate

Answer 21

a. climate: refers to the avg. weather conditions in an area over a longer pd. of time - air temp. and precipitation are the 2 most common characteristics used to describe climate

b. classified according to latitude (how close they are to the equator) the 3 major divisions:
- low latitudes: 0-23.5 degrees
- middle latitudes: 23.5-66.5 degrees
- high latitudes: ~66.5 degrees to the poles

Question 22

climates in the low latitudes: rainforests, savannas, and deserts

Answer 22

a. rainforests: near the equator, experience high avg. temps and humidity and high rainfall

b. savannas: found on either side of the rainforest region. mostly grasslands, experience dry winters and wet summers

c. deserts: hot, dry climates, sparse rainfall, and temp fluctuations of up to 50 degrees from day to night

Question 23

middle latitudes: the Mediterranean, humid-subtropical, and humid continental climates

Answer 23

a. Mediterranean: hot, dry summers follow by mild winters and sparse rainfall that occurs mostly during the winter months (EX. most of the CA coast)

b. humid-subtropical: located in southeastern coastal areas. winds that blow in over warm ocean currents produce long summers, mild winters, and a long growing szn

c. humid-continental: produces the 4 szns - winters are cold and summers are hot and humid

Question 24

middle latitudes: marine, steppe, and desert

Answer 24

a. marine: found near water or on islands - ocean winds help make these areas mild and rainy. summers are cooler than humid subtropical summers, but winters also bring milder temps due to the warmth of the ocean winds

b. steppe: prairie climates, found far inland on large continents. summers are hot and winters are cold, but rainfall is sparser than in continental climates

c. desert: occurs where steppe climate receive even less rainfall (EX. the Gobi Desert in Asia)

Question 25

climates found in the high latitudes

Answer 25

a. tundra: “marshy plain” - the ground is frozen throughout long, cold winters, but little snowfall. during the short summers, it becomes wet and marshy
- not amenable to crops

b. taigas: lies south of tundra regions and include the largest forest areas in the world, as well as swamps and marshes
- large mineral deposits exist here and animals valued for their fur
- in the winter, colder than the tundra and summers are hotter

Question 26

how internal and external processes shape the earth’s physical features

Answer 26

a. tectonic movement: often occurs at fault lines, cracks in the rocks that form the earth’s crust - when land fractures around a fault, it can move to a new location (EX. the Appalachian Mountains were created as a result of movement at a plate boundary)
- this can result in earthquakes, mountains, volcanic activity, etc.

b. the cooling lava that forms rock alters the surrounding landforms in some cases creates new landforms (EX. Hawaii)

c. seafloor spreading occurs when underwater plates separate. lava that erupts at a plate boundary underwater is cooled by the water and solidifies, forming a new crust

Question 27

how are mountains formed

Answer 27

a. when 2 plates move or collide w/ each other, and vast land areas are uplifted

b. the 5 mountains:
- Fold Mountains: formed by collision of 2 plates, causing folding of the earth’s crust (EX. Himalayas and Alps)
- Fault-block mountains: formed by sliding along faults in the earth’s crust (EX. the Sierra Nevada Mountains)
- Volcanic mountains: formed when magma erupts and piles up on the surface of the earth (EX. Mt. Fuji)
- Dome mountains: formed from hot magma rising from the earth’s mantle into the crust that pushes overlying sedimentary rock layers upward to form a “dome” (EX. the Navajo Mountain in Utah) think of a pimple
- Plateau mountains: fake mountains formed bc of erosion, they usually occur near the fold mountain ranges

Question 28

how weathering, erosion, and deposition change physical features of the earth

Answer 28

a. weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals on earth from exposure to wind, water, gases, and/or changes in temp.
- chemical weathering occurs when the elements that compose rock break down (i.e. salt water can dissolve soft rock) caves typically develop as a result
- mechanical weathering occurs when physical force breaks down rocks

b. erosion involves movement of any loose material on earth’s surface
- these loose fragments can be displaced by wind, water, ice, plant cover, and human factors
- mechanical erosion occurs due to natural forces
- chemical erosion refers to human intervention

c. deposition is the result of transportation
- when material is transported, its eventually deposited, and builds up to create formations like sand dunes

Question 29

distribution and uses of natural resources and the influence of such resources and the ecosystem on human populations

Answer 29

a. natural resources are distributed throughout the world
- renewable sources: sun, air, wind, trees, livestock, fish, etc.
- nonrenewable: coal, petroleum, gas, iron, copper, etc.

b. human settlement patterns are largely tied to location and distribution of natural resources
- humans settle in areas for survival and/or to claim an important resource for economic benefit
- EX. the Middle East hold more than 2/3 of the world’s oil reserves → making it a key part of the global economic and political systems

Question 30

the effects of geographical features: what makes humans want to settle in a particular area?

Answer 30

a. in general, populations are most dense in regions w/ temperate climates (EX. pop. is low in Antartica and high in EU). factors that are preferred for settlement:
- people prefer climates that aren’t extreme

• low, flat land: easier to grow crops and move from place to place (EX. India)
• areas close to coasts, which offer navigable waterways
• areas w/ plentiful natural resources: pop. grow in the mountains if the land is rich w/ minerals
• areas w/ rich soil (EX. floodplains)
• areas w/ a lot of rain, as long as agriculture can be sustained
• dry areas that have flowing rivers can be used for irrigation (EX. Pakistan, Egypt)

Question 31

human activities that shape the environment

Answer 31

a. plows and other agricultural implements for efficient mass production of crops for consumption

b. crop rotation: plating different crops on the same plot of land to improve soil health and more

c. terracing: used in mountains for growth of crops

d. genetic engineering

e. deforestation

f. dam construction

g. mining of mineral resources, which results in defacement of the landscape

h. irrigation

Question 32

current environmental problems (pt 1)

Answer 32

a. global warming
b. depletion of the ozone layer
c. deforestation
d. decline of fish stocks
e. desertification: when human activity stresses productive land beyond its limits (EX. the Dust Bowl)
f. salinization: over time, soil accumulates salt, and the increase in salinity of the soil reduces water avail. to plants
g. destruction of vegetative cover (tillage), leading to soil erosion
h. air pollution
i. acid deposition: sulfuric and nitric acid are emitted when fossil fuels are burned in the form of dust or precipitation
j. waste disposal
k. water pollution

Question 33

alternative energy sources relatively safer for the environment

Answer 33

a. nuclear power
b. solar power: a clean energy in the sense that it results in no pollution
c. wind power
d. hydroelectric energy