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FM, G2E and S2C > Genomes to Ecosystems > Flashcards

Genomes to Ecosystems Flashcards

1
Q

How many metazoan species live in coral reefs?

A

830k

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2
Q

How many marine species are there and what percentage of these exist in coral?

A

1.5 million, >50%

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3
Q

Where do corals live and what do they feed on?

A

Corals live in shallow, warm, nutrient poor water and feed on zooplankton

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4
Q

What type of relationship do corals have with zooxanthellae dinoflagellate algae?

A

Facultative endosymbiosis - algae get a nutrient rich stable refuge while the coral are provided with food

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5
Q

Why do coral reefs require CO2?

A

CO2 dissociates into bicarbonate which is in equilibrium with carbonate. Carbonate is needed to combine with calcium to create the skeleton of the coral reef.

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6
Q

What effect does too much CO2 have on coral?

A

It leads to an acidic environment in which coral cannot grow

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7
Q

Major extinction events correspond to…

A

rapid and cataclysmic environmental changes.

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8
Q

Radiations occur due to…

A

favourable habitats and ocean physiochemistry.

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9
Q

What do algae produce under stressful conditions?

A

Reactive oxygen species which cause oxidative damage leading to DNA mutations and cell death

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10
Q

What are some of the man-made causes of coral bleaching?

A
  • Sea surface temperature increases due to CO2 emissions and climate change
  • Increased solar irradiance due to ozone depletion
  • Silt deposition (anoxia) due to deforestation
  • Prey overabundance (anoxia) due to overfishing
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11
Q

What makes up an ecosystem?

A

Biota, abiotic components and their interactions

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12
Q

What are some biotic components of an ecosystem?

A

Primary producers, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and detritivores

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13
Q

What are some abiotic components of an ecosystem?

A

Sunlight, temperature, precipitation, substrate types, soil, water, and chemicals

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14
Q

What are the four ecosystem functions?

A

1) energy transfer
2) nutrient cycling
3) water cycling
4) CO2 cycling

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15
Q

What are some of the ecosystem goods and services?

A
  • Supporting services - processes which are needed for production of all other ecosystem services
  • Regulating services - benefits gained from ecosystem processes which help regulate natural phenomena
  • Provisioning goods and services which are obtained from ecosystems
  • Cultural services: spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, recreation, etc.
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16
Q

Supporting services are those necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services and include…

A

Soil formation, photosynthesis, biomass production and oxygen production

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17
Q

Regulating services are the benefits obtained from the regulation of the ecosystem processes and include…

A

Carbon sequestration, regulation of climate, waste recycling and regulating of human diseases.

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18
Q

Ancestry can be inferred through…

A

anatomical homology and genomic sequences.

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19
Q

True or false: Selection acts on genotype.

A

False - selection acts on phenotype.

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20
Q

What is stabilising selection?

A

Stabilising (purifying) selection acts against extreme trait values and causes a loss of phenotypic variation in a population. The mean trait value stays the same.

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21
Q

What is directional selection?

A

Directional selection causes the mean trait value to move in response to the direction and intensity of the selection.

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22
Q

What is disruptive selection?

A

Disruptive selection selects against the mean trait and results in a multimodal trait distribution. This may be due to two different food sources occurring and could go back and forth depending on growth (sometimes it is better to be a generalist, other times a specialist).

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23
Q

What are convergent mutations?

A

Convergent mutations are those which happen independently in the same genetic background.

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24
Q

What is the name given to variability against the same genetic background which explains the differences seen in twins?

A

Phenotypic plasticity

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25
Q

The greater the heritability of a trait, the faster a species can respond to selective pressure. This is seen in the breeders equation. What is the breeders equation?

A

R = h2/S
where R is the evolutionary response (change in phenotype between generations), h2 is the heritability (transmissibility of the phenotype) and S is the selection differentional (the change in phenotype due to selection). (h is not squared)

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26
Q

What type of selection can lead to variation in reproductive success?

A

Sexual selection

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27
Q

The Founder Effect refers to…

A

the reduction in genomic variability that occurs when a small group of individuals becomes separated from a larger population.

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28
Q

What is a species?

A

A species is a group of organisms which can reproduce with each other in nature, producing fertile offspring.

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29
Q

Explain allopatric speciation.

A

An external barrier separates the populations; populations diverge genetically

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30
Q

Explain sympatric speciation.

A

No geographic barrier; populations may differ in habitat, behaviour, or adaptation; assertive mating may lead to genetic divergence

31
Q

What is adaptive radiation? What are the causes?

A

Adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from their ancestors into many new species. This may be caused by key innovations, environmental changes, or ecological changes.

32
Q

What name may be given to large animals isolated on islands which have evolved to become smaller?

A

Insular dwarfs

33
Q

What name may be given to small animals isolated on islands which have evolved to become larger?

A

Insular giants

34
Q

The Cambrian Explosion refers to a period when many new creatures appear in the fossil record. What environmental changes may have caused this?

A

An increase in oxygen levels which may have meant levels were reached which could support larger animals, or snowball Earth which is the hypothesis that Earth was iced over before this period.

35
Q

The Cambrian Explosion refers to a period when many new creatures appear in the fossil record. What developmental changes may have caused this?

A

The diversification of HOX genes which are important in regulation of the development of segmentation in animals.

36
Q

The Cambrian Explosion refers to a period when many new creatures appear in the fossil record. What ecological changes may have caused this?

A

The evolution of eyes leading to predation and an arms race between predators and their prey.

37
Q

What is the name of the sixth mass extinction and what does it deal with?

A

The Anthropocene deals with the loss of giants (megafauna) such as the dire wolf and woolly mammoth.

38
Q

What is the estimated number of species in the world?

A

8.7 million

39
Q

How many of the total DNA on earth is believed to have been sequenced?

A

1e10-22%

40
Q

Natural variation may occur between individuals in the same population however they can be included in the same population as long as they are…

A

connected reproductively

41
Q

Populations of the same species could theoretically interbreed but may not for a variety of reasons. What are some examples of these reasons?

A

Geographic, ecological or time separation

42
Q

What does a community refer to?

A

Different populations which exist in the same enviornment

43
Q

What is an assemblage?

A

Something within a community with a defined interaction between individuals, for example a predator and its prey.

44
Q

What are some of the key biological processes individuals must to do stay alive?

A

Growth, metabolism, activity, thermoregulation and reproduction

45
Q

What are the stages of primary succession?

A

Initiation, colonisation, development, maturation and climax

46
Q

What is primary succession?

A

Primary succession is when there was nothing there to begin with then the area was slowly inhabited and became resourceful.

47
Q

What is secondary succession?

A

Secondary succession is when a habitat which existed is destroyed and must be repopulated again. This may be human caused such as war or deforestation, or natural such as wildfires.

48
Q

What is the difference between density-independent and density-dependent factors>

A

Density independent factors affect all species in the environment. Density dependent factors only affect one population.

49
Q

What are some examples of density independent factors?

A

Density independent factors include light, wind, salt, water, etc. These stressors will affect all individuals regardless of how large a population is. Over time populations may adapt to these stressors.

50
Q

Animals may deal with stressors by dispersal or migration. What is the difference between dispersal and migration?

A

Migration is coordinated, directional, and pre-decided movement whereas dispersal happens only in response to a stressor.

51
Q

What are some of the reasons for which animals day disperse?

A

To find resources, to find better conditions, to reduce competition, to avoid inbreeding depression, etc.

52
Q

What is the carrying capacity and what affects it?

A

The carrying capacity is the maximum number of individuals which can be sustained consistently within an environment. This is affected by resources, parasitism, disease, and competition.

53
Q

Competition is the negative effects caused by one organism consuming or controlling access to a limited resource. What are the two possible outcomes?

A

Coexistence (ecological differentiation) or elimination (dominant species outcompetes the other).

54
Q

What is the difference between a fundamental and realised niche?

A

Fundamental niche is a set of conditions which organisms could survive and grow in while the realised niche is the set of conditions in which an organism actually lives.

55
Q

What are some invasive plant species?

A

American skunk cabbage, giant hogweed, rhododendron and Himalayan balsam

56
Q

What are some invasive animal species?

A

American mink, American signal crayfish, carpet sea squirt, killer shrimp and Harlequin ladybird

57
Q

Describe the mutualistic relationship between coral polyps and zooxanthellae.

A

Coral polyps produce carbon dioxide and water as by products of cellular respiration. The zooxanthellae cells use the carbon dioxide and water to carry out photosynthesis. Sugars, lipids (fats) and oxygen are some of the products of photosynthesis which the zooxanthellae cells produce. The coral polyp then uses these products to grow and carry out cellular respiration. The tight recycling of products between the polyp cells and the zooxanthellae is the driving force behind the growth and productivity of coral reefs.

58
Q

What types of variations can cause increased niche availability?

A

Temporal and spatial

59
Q

What region of the brain is sensitive to light changes and how might this affect migration behaviours?

A

The hypothalamic region is sensitive to light changes: the animals’ ability to sense when the light is changing hence the seasons are changing, has a lot to do with integrating these messages and synchronising migration behaviours.

60
Q

What are some advantages of migration?

A

The chance to exploit new resources seasonally, protect their vulnerable young (e.g. Bluefin tuna), to avoid inbreeding depression by finding new mates and to reduce competition caused by limited resources during seasonal change.

61
Q

What are some risks of migration?

A

Bad weather, lack of stops in case of emergency, predation, disorientation (light alteration for example) or a potential lack of final stops.

62
Q

What are some methods used to study migration?

A

Point counts (sometimes using natural markings); radar; and satellite tracking.

63
Q

Biomechanical adaptations allow animals to migrate. What biomechanical adaptations are seen in albatross and eagles? Why do these differ?

A

Albatross have narrow, tapered wings to enable them to soar and migrate far distances. Eagles have broader wingspans and lots of individual feathers which are good for manoeuvrability but not as good for soaring as eagles mainly use flight to hunt.

64
Q

Why does the sandpiper use a unique food source (shrimp species)?

A

The food is high in fatty acids which can fuel its long migratory lights. The fatty acids may be stored as fat but the majority is incorporated into the cell membranes, altering gene transcription to favour the use of fatty acids as the main energy source.

65
Q

What are directives?

A

Directives are policies made when many countries agree that something must be done. There is then a process in each country, ultimately leading to the creation of a law in each country.

66
Q

What are the protected spaces?

A
  • inland waters (“baseline”): above low tide
  • territorial waters: up to 12 nautical miles from shore
  • exclusive economic zones: up to 200 nautical miles from shore
  • high seas: international waters
67
Q

What is put in place is countries are less than 200 nautical miles from one another?

A

National Agreements

68
Q

What size are macroplastics?

A

≥5mm

69
Q

What size are microplastics? What two categories can these fall under?

A

≤5mm (primary if whole item; secondary if broken down pieces from larger item).

70
Q

Why are washing machines one of the largest plastic waste producers?

A

Due to them gathering synthetic fibres from clothes.

71
Q

What issues do macroplastics cause for animals?

A

Ingestion, entanglement (restricting their movement and growth) and the introduction of invasive species.

72
Q

What issues do microplastics cause for animals?

A

May be ingested and cause issues such as false satiation, suffocation, physical blockages, weakened condition and hormonal disruption.

73
Q

What are nurdles?

A

Nurdles are small plastic pellets which end up in the ocean and threaten marine life as animals often mistake them for food. In the sea, nurdles attract harmful toxins to their surface which do not break down or go away. One of these toxins is DDT which has a hydrophobic ring structure making it near insoluble in water.

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